Congress of Vienna

In the Manifesto of the Equals, Babeuf, a member of the revolutionary Cercle Social founded by Bode’s disciple Nicolas de Bonneville, wrote, “The French Revolution was nothing but a precursor of another revolution, one that will be bigger, more solemn, and which will be the last.” During the decade of the 1840s, the word “communist” came into general use to describe those who purportedly hailed from the left wing of the Jacobin Club of the French Revolution, who saw themselves as inheritors of the 1795 Conspiracy of Equals headed by Babeuf.[1] The man who provided the link between the revolutionary ideas of Babeuf and the communists of the eighteenth century was his friend and Illuminatus, Philippe Buonarroti (1761 – 1837), who had participated in Babeuf’s Conspiracy of Equals. The revolutionaries spoke of Buonarroti as “an occult power whose shadowy tentacles extended… over Europe.”[2]  

Buonarroti’s work became a bible for revolutionaries, inspiring such leftists as Karl Marx (1818 – 1883). Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895) recognized in the Conspiracy of Equals “the first appearance of a truly active Communist party.”[3] Indeed, Marx and Engels, a half-century later in their first joint work The Holy Family (1844), were eager to concede their debt to Bonneville’s enterprise:

The revolutionary movement which began in 1789 in the Cercle Social, which in the middle of its course had as its chief representatives Leclerc and Roux, and which finally with Babeuf’s conspiracy was temporarily defeated, gave rise to the communist idea which Babeuf’s friend Buonarroti re-introduced in France after the Revolution of 1830. This idea, consistently developed, is the idea of the new world order.[4]

The beginnings of this New World Order began in 1610 with the Rosicrucians’ manifestos and their announcement of a “universal reformation of mankind.” Although the Rosicrucian movement purportedly ended in disaster when their appointment of Frederick V of the Palatinate precipitated the Thirty Years War in in 1618, it was the Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, which ended it and the Eighty Years War, which laid the foundations for the creation of a New World Order, as a global federation of nation-states. The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815, which remade Europe after the downfall of Napoleon, and subsequent Concert of Europe system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the Russian Empire, the restored French monarchy, the German Confederation, under the dominance of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. German nationalists tried but failed to establish Germany as a nation-state, instead the German Confederation was created that was a loose collection of independent German states that lacked strong federal institutions.

While Britain was benefitting from the Rothschild’s finances, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, then grouped together as the “Holy Alliance,” were also resorting to their financial help.[5] It was Mayer Amschel Rothschild, the dynasty’s founder, who famously said, “Give me control of a Nation’s money and I care not who makes the laws.” Mayer Rothschild expanded his financial empire by installing each of his sons in other European cities, Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777 – 1836) in London, Amschel Mayer Rothschild (1773 – 1855) in Frankfurt, Salomon Mayer Rothschild (1774 – 1855) in Vienna, Carl Mayer Rothschild (1788 – 1855) in Naples, and in Paris, James Mayer Rothschild (1792 – 1868). In 1816, four of the brothers were each granted the title of Baron by Austria’s Francis von Habsburg, the last Holy Roman Emperor. Mayer Amschel Rothschild sent Nathan, who showed exceptional ability in finance, at the age of twenty-one, with plans of securing control of the Bank of England. The Bank of England, a private corporation, established in 1694, is centered in the City of London. The square-mile-large City is a sovereign state, located in the heart of greater London. Regarded as the “Vatican of the financial world,” the City is not subject to British law, but is said to be run by the “Crown.” Nathan set up his London business, N. M. Rothschild and Sons, which also had branches with his brothers in Paris, Vienna, Berlin and Naples. In the nineteenth century a legend began to circulate which accused Nathan of having used his prior knowledge of Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 to speculate on the Stock Exchange and amass a vast fortune.

The famous German-Jewish poet Heinrich Heine (1797 – 1856), a close friend of Marx and the Rothschilds, declared, declared “money is the God of our time and Rothschild is his prophet.”[6] Heine listed Nathan Rothschild as one of the “three terroristic names that spell the gradual annihilation of the old aristocracy,” alongside Cardinal Richelieu and Maximilien Robespierre.[7] According to Heine:

No one does more to further the revolution than the Rothschilds themselves… and, though it may sound even more strange, these Rothschilds, the bankers of kings, these princely pursestring-holders, whose existence might be placed in the gravest danger by a collapse of the European state system, nevertheless carry in their minds a consciousness of their revolutionary mission.[8]

Genealogy of the House of Rothschild

• Mayer Amschel Rothschild (built fortune as banker to William I, Elector of Hesse, brother of Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel, member of Illuminati and Grand Master of the Asiatic Brethren)

  • Amschel "Anselm" Mayer Rothschild (1773–1855, Frankfurt branch. Died childless, his brothers assumed responsibility for the business from 1855)

  • Salomon Mayer von Rothschild (1774–1855, Austrian branch, retained ties with Prince Metternich, whose father, Franz Metternich (1746 – 1818), had been a member of the Illuminati. Joined the “the Nascent Dawn,” known as the Judenlodge, founded in Frankfurt-on-Main in 1807 by Illuminati member and Rothschild agent Siegmund Geisenheimer, assisted by Daniel Itzig, and headed by Franz Joseph Molitor, both members of Asiatic Brethren. In 1817, the Judenlodge obtained a new charter from Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel)

    • Anselm Salomon von Rothschild (1803 – 1874) + Charlotte Nathan Rothschild

      • Nathaniel Meyer von Rothschild (1836 – 1905, in homosexual relationship with Philipp, Prince of Eulenburg, close friend of friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II, knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, who shared his interest in the occult. Eulenburg summoned Theodor Herzl to Liebenberg to announce that Wilhelm II wanted to see a Jewish state established in Palestine)

  • Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836, London branch, founder of N. M. Rothschild & Sons) + Hannah Barent-Cohen (sister of wife of Moses Montefiore, Freemason who founded Alliance Israëlite Universelle with Benjamin Disraeli and Adolphe Crémieux, member of Memphis-Mizraim and Grand Commander of the Grand Lodge of France)

    • Lionel Nathan (1808–1879) + Charlotte von Rothschild (cousin of Nanette Salomon Barent-Cohen, grandmother of Karl Marx)

      • Baron Lionel de Rothschild (1808 – 1879, friend of Benjamin Disraeli) + Charlotte von Rothschild

        • Baron Nathan “Natty” Rothschild (1840 – 1915, friend of Cecil Rhodes and funded founding of the Round Table. Friend of Lord Randolph Churchill (1849 –1895), father of Winston Churchill. Friend of Prince of Wales, father of Prince Albert Victor (1864 – 1892), who had an illegitimate child with Mary Jean Kelly, whose friends numbered among Jack the Ripper’s victims) + Emma Louise von Rothschild

          • Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild (1868 – 1937, close friend of Weizmann, who helped to draft the Balfour Declaration presented to him, written by Round Table member Lord Balfour, along with the help of Louis Brandeis, Felix Frankfurter and Rabbi Stephen Wise, all leading Zionists and known Sabbateans)

        • Alfred Rothschild (1842 – 1918, tutored by Wilhelm Pieper, Karl Marx’s private secretary. Friend of Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII. Friend of Round Table member, Field Marshal Lord Kitchener (1850 – 1916), who Lanz von Liebenfels claimed was a member of his Order of New Templars (ONT) and a reader of his anti-Semitic magazine Ostara, a magazine avidly ready by a young Hitler) + Marie Boyer

        • Leopold de Rothschild (1845 – 1917) + Marie Perugia

          • Lionel de Rothschild (1882 – 1942, close friend of Winston Churchill) + Marie Louise Eugénie Beer

  • Calmann "Carl" Mayer Rothschild (1788–1855, Naples branch)

  • James Mayer de Rothschild (1792–1868. Paris branch. Reported as defender of Sabbateanism by Rabbi Jacob Emden (1697 – 1776). Patron of Rossini, Chopin, Balzac, Delacroix, and Heinrich Heine)

    • Alphonse James de Rothschild (1827 – 1905)

    • Edmond James de Rothschild (1845 – 1934, supporter of Zionism, his large donations lent significant support to the movement during its early years, which helped lead to the establishment of the State of Israel. Backed founding of Hovevei Zion by Leon Pinsker (1821 – 1891). In Jerusalem, Theodor Herzl and Kaiser Wilhelm II met at Mikveh Israel, a village and boarding school, founded in 1870 by Charles Netter, an emissary of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, with Baron Edmond James de Rothschild contributing)

Salomon Rothschild retained strong ties with the famous Austrian statesman and diplomat, Prince Metternich (1773 – 1859), whose father, Franz Metternich (1746 – 1818), had been a member of the Illuminati.[9] Metternich was the chairman of the Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815, which remade Europe after the defeat of Napoleon, and several major empires took control of European politics. The Congress gave birth to the Concert of Europe system, by which the Great Powers aimed to maintain the European balance of power, political boundaries, and spheres of influence. Leading the negotiations were the Rothschild debtors, the Big Four, the Coalition of Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia. France had to give up all its recent conquests, while the other three main powers making major territorial gains. Prussia added Swedish Pomerania, much of the Kingdom of Saxony and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw, while Russia gained the central and eastern part. Austria obtained Venice and much of northern Italy. All agreed on ratifying the new Kingdom of the Netherlands which had been created just months before from the formerly Austrian territory. One of the states to which regained sovereignty was the Papal States, under the rule of the Pope, whose official banker became James Rothschild.[10]

According to former high-ranking Mason Signor Domenico Margiotta, Jewish banker Gerson von Bleichröder (1822 – 1893), who maintained close contacts with the Rothschild family, financed the plans for German unification of Thirty-third degree Mason Otto von Bismarck (1815 – 1898).[11] After the Holy Roman Empire’s defeat and dissolution during the Napoleonic Wars in 1806, the beginnings of an unprecedented wave of German nationalism swept through Germany during the first half of the nineteenth century. German nationalists tried but failed to establish Germany as a nation-state, and instead, at the Congress of Vienna, the German Confederation of about 37 independent German-speaking states was created that was a loose collection of independent German states that lacked strong federal institutions. Thirty-third degree Mason Otto von Bismarck (1815 – 1898), and knight of the Austrian branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece, became one of the most prominent leaders of the nineteenth century. Appointed to represent Prussia in Frankfurt, Bismarck had slowly become convinced that a Prussian-led unified German nation was an important goal.

Also according to Margiotta, Bleichröder was also the German agent of the Palladian Rite.[12] Bismarck, along with Albert Pike, and Giuseppe Mazzini (1807 – 1872), a close associate of Buonarroti, all thirty third degree Scottish Rite Masons, completed an agreement to create a supreme universal rite of Masonry that would arch over all the other rites.[13] Civil War General Albert Pike was Sovereign Commander Grand Master of the Supreme Council of Scottish Rite Freemasonry in Charleston, South Carolina, and the reputed founder of the notorious Ku Klux Klan (KKK).[14] Albert Pike, in honor of the Templar idol Baphomet, named the order the New and Reformed Palladian Rite or New and Reformed Palladium. The Palladian Rite was the pinnacle of Masonic power, an international alliance to bring in the Grand Lodges, the Grand Orient, the ninety-seven degrees of Memphis and Misraim of Cagliostro, also known as the Ancient and Primitive Rite, and the Scottish Rite, or the Ancient and Accepted Rite.

Mazzini was reputed to have been Weishaupt’s successor as head of the Illuminati.[15] Mazzini held a high position among the Florentine Freemasons, and served as Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy, as did Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807 – 1882), who are both considered among of Italy’s “fathers of the fatherland,” along with Count of Cavour (1810 – 1861) and Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, Duke of Savoy (1820 – 1878).[16] As a member of the Carbonari, meaning “charcoal burners,” a quasi-Masonic revolutionary secret society formed in southern Italy early in the nineteenth century through the influence of Buonarroti, Mazzini was a leader of the Risorgimento (“Resurgence”), a political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy. Of the several theories about the origins of the Italian Mafia is one that it was founded by Mazzini. Mafia is purportedly an acronym for Mazzini Autorizza Furti Incense Avvelanamenti, meaning “Mazzini authorizes theft, arson and poisoning.” The Mafia have a ritual similar to that of the Carbonari, and remotely, to Freemasonry as well. The ritual of the Carbonari involves knives, blindfolds, blood, fire and the invocation of a saint (Saint Theobald), and culminates in an oath to secrecy similar to that in Freemasonry: “I consent, and wish, if I perjure myself, that my body may be cut in pieces, then burnt, and my ashes scattered to the wind.”[17]

Mazzini worked closely with Lord Palmerston (1784 – 1865), a knight of the Order of the Garter, and the Grand Patriarch of Freemasonry. Palmerston was twice Prime Minister, holding office continuously from 1807 until his death in 1865, and dominated British foreign policy during the period 1830 to 1865, when Britain was at the height of its imperial power. According to nineteenth-century German anti-Masonic historian Eduard Emil Eckert, who wrote in Palmerston’s time:

Masonry being a universal association is governed by one only chief called a Patriarch. The title of Grand Master of the Order is not the exclusive privilege of a family or of a nation. Scotland, England, France, and Germany have in their time had the honour to give the order its supreme chief. It appears that Lord Palmerston is clothed to-day with the dignity of Patriarch.

At the side of the Patriarch are found two committees, the one legislative and the other executive. These committees, composed of delegates of the Grand Orients (mother national lodges), alone know the Patriarch, and are alone in relation with him.[18]

The secret leaders of Freemasonry, headed by Palmerston, reportedly devised a plan for German unity under a Prussian monarchy and for Italy under the House of Savoy—a family of Jacobite heritage, descended from Charles Emmanuel I, whose birth was prophesied by Nostradamus, with links with the House of Habsburg and the Order of the Golden Fleece, and who claimed the hereditary title of Kings of Jerusalem.[19] Charles Emmanuel I married Catherina Micaela of Spain, the sister of Philip III of Spain, Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece. From Charles Emmanuel I and Catherine’s son was Thomas Francis of Savoy, Prince of Carignano (1596 – 1656), from whom descend the junior branch of Savoy-Carignano. The House of Savoy were closely linked to the Jacobite cause through the marriage of Charles Emmanuel I’s great-great-granddaughter Mary of Modena to James II of England, whose James Francis Edward Stuart, known as “The Old Pretender,” was the father of the Jabobite pretenders, Charles Edward Stuart, Bonnie Prince Charlie, “the Young Pretender” and his brother Henry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal Duke of York. The family of their mother, Maria Clementina Sobieska, was related to Jacob Frank.[20]

Through gradual expansion, the House of Savoy grew in power from ruling a small county in the Alps north-west of Italy, to absolute rule of the kingdom of Sicily in 1713. In 1720, they were forced to exchange Sicily for Sardinia as a result of the War of the Quadruple Alliance. Through advantageous alliances during the War of the Polish Succession and War of the Austrian Succession, Victor Amadeus II’s son Charles Emmanuel III (1701 – 1773) gained new lands at the expense of the Austrian-controlled Duchy of Milan. In 1792, Piedmont-Sardinia joined the First Coalition against the French First Republic, but was beaten in 1796 by Napoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageous Treaty of Paris, giving the French army free passage through Piedmont. In 1798, French General Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV (1751 – 1819), grandson of Charles Emmanuel III, to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. Eventually, in 1814 the kingdom was restored and enlarged with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa by the Congress of Vienna, which added the region of Savoy to its borders.

Charles Emmanuel IV was the son of Victor Amadeus III (1726 – 1796) and Maria Antonia Ferdinanda, youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. Victor Amadeus III’s full titles were:

Victor Amadeus III, by the Grace of God, King of Sardinia, Cyprus, Jerusalem, Armenia, Duke of Savoy, Montferrat, Chablais, Aosta and Genevois, Prince of Piedmont and Oneglia, Marquis (of the Holy Roman Empire) in Italy, of Saluzzo, Susa, Ivrea, Ceva, Maro, Oristano, Sezana, Count of Maurienne, Nice, Tende, Asti, Alessandria, Goceano, Baron of Vaud and Faucigny, Lord of Vercelli, Pinerolo, Tarentaise, Lumellino, Val di Sesia, Prince and perpetual Vicar of the Holy Roman Empire in Italy.

Charles Emmanuel IV abdicated in favor of his brother Victor Emmanuel I (1802 – 1821). After Napoleon, the Kingdom of Sardinia was ruled by conservative monarchs: Victor Emmanuel I, his brother Charles Felix (1821 – 1831), and his distant cousin Charles Albert (1831 – 1849), a descendant of the junior branch of Savoy-Carignano. As a descendant of Henrietta of England, the daughter of Charles I of England, Victor Emmanuel I carried the Jacobite claim to the thrones of England and Scotland. His brothers, Charles Felix and Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia, were both knights of the Spanish branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Charles Emmanuel IV was a frequent guest of the brother of the Young Pretender, Henry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal Duke of York, a great supporter of the Frankists.[21] Count Cagliostro also claimed to maintain a confidential relationship with York.[22]

Victor Emmanuel I married Archduchess Maria Teresa of Austria-Este, granddaughter of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and Empress Maria Theresa, who supported Jacob Frank’s mission. The father of Victor’s wife’s Maria Beatrice was Ferdinand, Duke of Modena (1754 – 1806), the brother of Emperor Joseph II, Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece, who was reputed to have had an affair with Jacob Frank’s daughter Eva. Beatrice was the only surviving child of Duke Ercole III (1727 – 1803), the last Este Duke of Modena, and knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. There have been claims that the House of Este belong to a Davidic lineage.[23] Modena was one of three important centers of Sabbatean activity outside of Poland and Turkey.

Ercole III was the son of Duke Francesco III d’Este (1698 – 1780), Duke of Modena and Charlotte Aglaé d’Orléans, daughter of Philippe II d’Orléans, a friend of Chevalier Michael Ramsay, and Françoise Marie de Bourbon, the daughter of Madame de Montespan, who was accused of performing the Black Mass. Ercole III’s brother, Francesco I d’Este, Duke of Modena (1610 – 1658), also a knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, married Maria Caterina Farnese and their son, Alfonso IV d’Este, Duke of Modena married Laura Martinozzi, and were the parents of Mary of Modena. In 1763, Ercole III signed a treaty with the Empress Maria Theresa engaging the nine-year-old Ferdinand to his only daughter Maria Beatrice, thus making Ferdinand his heir. Maria Theresa’s brother Maximilian Joseph (1782 – 1863), was Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. Her sister Maria Ludovika married her first cousin Francis II, Emperor of Austria, Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and the son of successor of Leopold II. But after the death of Victor Immanuel I, the Stuart claim passed from the House of Savoy to the House of Hapsburg-Lorraine branch of Modena (1840-1919), and finally to the House of Bavaria (1919-present).

Despite his close ties with France, the Catholic traditionalist Joseph de Maistre was also a subject of Victor Emmanuel I, whom he served as member of the Savoy Senate, spending fifteen years in St. Petersburg as an envoy of the exiled Savoy court. In 1792, de Maistre fled Chambéry when it was taken by a French revolutionary army, deciding that he could not support the French-controlled regime, de Maistre departed for Lausanne, Switzerland, where he discussed politics and theology at the salon of Madame de Staël, a friend of Dorothea Mendelssohn, daughter of Moses Mendelssohn.[24] In 1802, he was sent to Saint Petersburg in Russia as ambassador to Tsar Alexander I, a knight of the Spanish branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece.[25] De Maistre’s observations on Russian life, contained in his diplomatic memoirs and in his personal correspondence, were among Leo Tolstoy’s sources for his novel War and Peace.[26]

Philadelphians

Historians such as Jacques Godechot and Georges Lefebvre have asserted that Buonarroti was “uncontestably the animator of most of the societies of Masonic or carbonarist inspiration from 1812 to 1830.”[27] Buonarroti was a leader of the Philadelphes, a cover for the Illuminati, which by some accounts had been established by Marquis de Chefdebien d’Armissan, who was also a member of the Weishaupt’s order and the Knights of Malta.[28]  In his own words, Buonarroti explained why Freemasonry provided a convenient front for his activities:

The public character of its meetings, the almost infinite number of its initiates, and the ease with which they are admitted have removed from Masonry every trace of political inclination. And if an exception is made of some very few and almost unknown lodges in which the light is preserved in its purity, all the others are nothing more than entertainment centers or schools of superstition and slavery.[29]

Buonarroti was a descendant of Michelangelo’s brother. As a young boy, Buonarroti became a court page in Tuscany for the brother of Joseph II, Archduke Peter Leopold, in 1773, who in 1790 became Emperor Leopold II, Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece. He attended the University of Pisa and studied law, where he was first introduced to his lifelong influence he shared with Weishaupt, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Soon after his graduating, Buonarroti became a Freemason.[30] Historian Carlo Francovich asserted that in 1786 Buonarroti also joined an Illuminati lodge in Florence.[31] Buonarroti became editor of the revolutionary Corsica paper, Giornale Patriottico di Corsica (1790), operated by Illuminatus Baron de Bassus, who referred to him by the Jewish alias of Abraham Levi Salomon.[32] According to historian James H. Billington, its first issues specifically identified the French Revolution with the Illuminati, and praised all the social upheavals taking place in Europe.[33]

By March of 1793, Buonarroti made his way to France, where he joined meetings of the Jacobin, and befriending Robespierre, “for whom he kept a great veneration all his life.”[34] In early 1794, during the Reign of Terror, Buonarroti joined Robespierre’s younger brother, Augustine, Napoleon Bonaparte, and the French army on the Italian Riviera. He was assigned the task of governing the city of Oneglia where he instituted a Revolutionary Dictatorship. He established pedagogical institutions to indoctrinate the citizens into the socialist dogma of Gabriel Bonnot de Mably and Rousseau, organized festivals of the Supreme Being and Nature, and instituted a local Popular Society closely associated with the Jacobins.[35]

Arrested on March 5, 1794, Buonarroti was sentenced to serve time at Du Plessis prison in Paris, where he had met and befriended François-Noël (Gracchus) Babeuf, a member of the revolutionary Social Circle established by Bode’s disciple, Nicholas Bonneville.[36] Buonarroti was one of seven members, along with Sylvain Maréchal and others, in Babeuf’s Conspiracy of the Equals, a failed coup d’état of May 1796 inspired by Jacobin ideals. Babeuf, who was inspired by Rousseau, wanted to overthrow the Directory, the governing five-member committee in the French First Republic, and replace it with an egalitarian and proto-socialist republic. Babeuf and his comrades denounced the privileged class who benefited from the Revolution, and advocated a radical reform of society, including the abolition of private property and equality for all of France. Buonarroti was again arrested with Babeuf and the other conspirators in 1797, imprisoned in Cherbourg. The High Court at Vendome sentenced Babeuf to death and Buonarroti to deportation, and sent to the Island of Re before finally being permitted by Napoleon to move to Geneva in 1806. Buonarroti was freed after nine years, when he began to organize a multitude of revolutionary secret societies.

Soon after settling in Geneva, Buonarroti was initiated into the Grand Orient Lodge Des Amis Sincères, and is recorded as being its Venerable Master in 1811, under the alias Camille.[37] The Genevan Amis Sincères was constituted on June 17, 1796, with a patent directly from the Paris Grand Master of the Grand Orient, Illuminatus Roëttiers de Montaleau. As soon as Buonarroti became a member, he immediately formed an inner circle within the Lodge, a “secret group of Philadelphes,” the same name assumed by the Illuminati in Paris.[38] With the help of General Claude François de Malet (b. 1754) and Generals Victor Lahorie and Maximilian-Joseph Guidal, the Philadelphes attempted to assassinate Napoleon in 1808 and 1812. Shortly after, Buonarroti founded his most important secret society: the Sublimes Maîtres Parfaits (“Sublime Perfect Masters”), which represented a merging of the Philadelphes from France and Switzerland and its Italian branch, the Adelphes, formed around 1807, headed by Buonarroti’s friend Luigi Angeloni (1758 – 1842).[39] The society had a Masonic structure, with were three hierarchic grades culminating in a secret center known as the “Great Firmament.” Instructions were handed down by a “mobile deacon” who were to be initiated in the mysteries of Rosicrucianism.[40] “The aim was no longer exclusively to fight Napoleon in France and Italy and the establishment of a republican regime,” explains Lehning. “It now became an international society of European revolutionaries with the purpose to republicanise Europe.”[41] The Genevan Grand Orient Lodge of the Amis Sincères was suppressed by the authorities in 1811.

Even the name of Buonarroti’s organization evoked Weishaupt’s original name for his order, the Perfettibilisti. The Sublimes Maîtres Parfaits, in its structure, hierarchy, methods of initiation, catechism, and gradualist aims were all almost identical with the Illuminati.[42] Buonarroti proposed a mutualist strategy intended to revolutionize society by stages, progressing from monarchy to liberalism, then to radicalism and finally to communism. A devoted disciple of Rousseau, Buonarroti made his way to France, where he attended Jacobin meetings and befriended Robespierre, for whom he kept a great admiration all his life.

Rites of Memphis and Misraim

It has long been assumed that members of the Philadelphes and the Adelphes of Italy, or the Sublimes Maîtres Parfaits, had founded the Carbonari.[43] “Of the numerous secret societies that honeycombed the Apennine Peninsula during the early part of the nineteenth century, explains John Raith, “none aroused a greater fear among individuals frightened of the French Revolution than the Carbonari.”[44] Emperor Francis and other Austrian conservatives, including Metternich, organized a secret spy network in order to safeguard the Habsburg interests from their subversion. In 1821, Pope Pius VII condemned the Carbonari as Masonic secret society, excommunicating its members.[45]

The Philadelphes were eventually affiliated with the Rite of Memphis, a brand of Egyptian Freemasonry closely associated with the Rite of Misraim, which had its origins with Count Cagliostro and Rabbi Falk.[46] Cagliostro, it is said, had been initiated into the rite by the Comte St. Germain.[47] It is also known as the Rite of Misraim, named after Mizraim, the Hebrew name for Egypt. From as early as 1738, traces of the Rite of Misraim can be found, which include alchemical, occult and Egyptian references, with a structure of 90 degrees. Through his association with the Grand Master of the Order of the Knights of Malta, Manuel Pinto de Fonseca, Cagliostro founded the Rite of High Egyptian Masonry in 1784. Between 1767 and 1775 he received the Arcana Arcanorum, which are three very high hermetic degrees, from Sir Knight Luigi d’Aquino, the brother of the national Grand Master of Neapolitan Masonry. In 1788, he introduced them into the Rite of Misraïm and gave a patent to this Rite. The Rite was composed of 90 degrees, taken from Scottish Rite Freemasonry, Martinism and other Masonic traditions, and the last four degrees were named Arcana Arcanorum.

The Rite of Misraim developed quickly in Milan, Genoa and Naples, and three Jewish Masons, brothers Joseph, Michel and Marc Bédarride established it in France in 1814. The Bédarride brothers came from a Sephardic Jewish family from Provence; who had been familiar with Kabbalistic currents in Judaism there through the Dönmeh movement. Marc Bédarride (1776 – 1846) served as part of Napoleon’s Army as an officer during the French campaign in Egypt in 1798, when he became involved in Freemasonry. Marc was a scholar of Egyptology and an honorary member of the Bonapartist Lodge of the Philosophical Scottish Rite “Saint Napoleon” of Palazzo Cocchi-Serristori in Florence. In 1801, he organized a meeting in Pisa of the most important Masonic lodges of the Kingdom of Etruria, together with Jacob Bédarride, Mathieu de Lesseps (1771 – 1832), the Consul General of France in Florence and father of Ferdinand de Lesseps, and “Philalete Abraham.” Marc is remembered for having founded the Masonic Rito Egizio di Misraim in 1813 and, together with Jacob and Joseph, constituted the first Egyptian Rite of Paris in 1815, called Arc en Ciel (Arcobaleno), closely associated with the Italian and French circles of Filippo Buonarroti.

In France, according to the Masonic history of John Yarker, there had developed the Rites of Primitive Philadelphes and Philalethes, which were the offspring of those of Pasquales and Saint Martin, which were introduced to Egypt with Napoleon’s conquest in 1798. A Grand Lodge of Freemasonry, known as the Isis Lodge, was established at Cairo when Napoleon and his general Kleber were initiated at the hands of an “Egyptian Sage.”[48] Mohammed Ali Pasha, then ruler over Egypt, is also said to have been a patron of Freemasonry until his death. Samuel Honis, a native Egyptian, was supposedly initiated at the Grand Lodge of Cairo, and afterwards brought the rite to France. In 1815, a lodge, the Disciples of Memphis, was founded by Hones, Marconis de Negre and others.[49]

After that, Egyptian Freemasonry went underground. In 1830, some Italian Masons formed the Carbonari Lodge in Alexandria. The lodge’s political activities brought it under the suspicion of the government, but it nevertheless proved popular and a further Lodge Ménés, also working the Memphis Rite, was founded where Samuel Honis was an active member. Honis founded a number of French Lodges in Alexandria, Ismailia, Port Said, Suez and Cairo, including the Al Ahram in Alexandria in 1845.[50]

In Paris in 1838, the Marconis’ son, Jacques-Etienne Marconis de Negre, established the Memphis Rite as a variation of the Rite of Misraïm, combining elements from Templarism with Egyptian and alchemical mythology. According to Marconis, borrowing from the legends of the Golden and Rosy Cross, an Egyptian “priest” named Ormus was converted to Christianity by St. Mark, and Christianized the Egyptian mysteries. This is to be understood to refer to Hermeticism, which was mistakenly believed to represent an ancient Egyptian “wisdom.” This Gnostic tradition then supposedly survived in Egypt, where it was kept by the “Knights of Palestine.” They were also known as the “Brethren of the Rosy Cross of the Orient.”[51]

In 1150, eighty-one of them arrived in Sweden, and presented themselves to the archbishop of Upsala, to whom they imparted their Masonic knowledge. After the death of Jacques de Molay, the Scottish Templars gathered under the standards of a new Order instituted by Robert Bruce, providing the origin of the Scottish Masonic Rite. The Scottish Templars were excommunicated by Larmenius in 1324, resulting in the separation of the Masons of Edinburgh from the Masons of Memphis. The Masons of Memphis remained faithful to the ancient traditions, while the others founded a new Rite, called Rite of Heredom de Kilwinning or of Scotland.[52]

Carbonari

According to Wit von Dörring, a former member who became a police informer, the aims of the Carbonari were the same as the Illuminati, to “destroy every positive religion and every form of government, whether unlimited despotism or democracy,” and were revealed in the final grade.[53] Although it is not clear where they were actually established, the Carbonari first came to prominence in the Kingdom of Naples during the Napoleonic wars. Some historians have proposed that the Carbonari were founded in Scotland or England by Scottish rite. Most historians, however, have connected the Carbonari with either the Freemasons or the Illuminati.[54] The membership of the Carbonari overlapped with that of Freemasonry, who were united in their opposition to the Roman Catholic domination of Italy. Inspired by the principles of the French Revolution, the main aim of the Carbonari, was the creation of a constitutional monarchy or a republic. Buonarroti had infiltrated the Italian Carbonari in Lombardy, Tuscany and Piedmont, around 1818, adding “a third grade so as to dovetail its hierarchy with that of the Sublimes Maîtres Parfaits,” which revealed the plan to “destroy tyrants and to overthrow absolutist governments.”[55]

After 1815, dissatisfaction with the conservative governments imposed by the Holy Alliance led to a strengthening of the Carbonari among the middle classes in Italy. Their strength in the army led to a successful revolution in Naples in 1820. By this time, the lodges had spread to France, where the Marquis de Lafayette served as the leader of the “Charbonerie.” The Carbonari are credited with gaining constitution in Spain and some states in Italy in 1820-21, and were involved in the struggle for Greek independence. However, the European powers united to overthrow the new constitutional governments. The Carbonari were also credited with inspiring the 1825 Decembrist plot in Russia. Outside Italy a similar movement called the Charbonnerie had taken root in France, which was divided into ventes. It participated in outbreaks in 1821, and Marquis de Lafayette served as Grand Master.

The Carbonari first arose during the resistance to the French occupation, notably under Joachim Murat (1767 – 1815), the Bonapartist King of Naples.  The revolution of 1820 began in Naples against Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (1751 – 1825), who had been restored in 1816, following victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Ferdinand I agreed to grant a new constitution and the adoption of a parliament. In 1821, the Kingdom of Sardinia conceded to a constitutional monarchy and liberal reforms as a result of Carbonari actions. Victor Emmanuel I abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Charles Felix. In 1821, Pope Pius VII issued the bull Ecclesiam a Jesu Christo which condemned the Carbonari as a Masonic secret society, excommunicating its members.

In 1821, the first Haute Vente (or Alta Vendita), the highest controlling body of the French Charbonnerie (Carbonari) was formed by Nicholas Joubert and Pierre Dugied. Of the five other members were Saint-Amand Bazard (1791 – 1832), co-founder of the revolutionary Lodge Les Amis De La Vérité in 1818, and Philippe-Joseph-Benjamin Buchez, first Venerable of Les Amis De La Vérité. According to Lehning, the Haute Vente was practically a reconstructed Comité directeur—the elusive and famous “secret leadership of the liberal opposition” in Paris since 1816.[56] Bazard and Buchez were among the members of the Comité directeur, as were Buonarroti disciples Marc Renee Voyer d’Argenson (1771 – 1842) and Charles Teste (1782 ­– 1848), and it was clear that, to a certain extent, the association was being manipulated by Buonarroti’s “Great Firmament.”[57] In the late 1820s, the Haute Vente was reorganized by Buonarroti as the Charbonnerie Réformée, and then in 1832-33 as the Charbonnerie Démocratique Universelle. After the “three glorious days” of the July Revolution of 1830, which saw the overthrow of Charles X and the ascension of Louis-Philippe, the Duke of Orleans (1773 – 1850), son of the Illuminati-affiliated Philippe Égalité, Buonarroti returned to Paris, where he spent the remaining years of his life. He quickly went to work, conspiring and indoctrinating anew.[58]

In Paris, Giuseppe Mazzini briefly collaborated with Buonarroti, who was still considered the de facto head of the Carbonari. In 1827, Mazzini travelled to Tuscany, where he became a member of the Carbonari. Mazzini had been a member of the Buonarroti’s semi-military society Apofasimeni, which was dependent on Buonarroti’s secret society “Monde,” the name under which the Sublimes Maitres Parfaits had been reorganized, probably in 1828. Carlo Bianco, the head of the Apofasimeni, under the direction of Buonarroti, affiliated the society to Mazzini’s Young Italy, through which Mazzini aimed to attain the leadership of the underground revolutionary movement in Italy.[59] In 1830, Mazzini turned away from both the Carboneri and Buonarroti and established his own organization, Giovine Italia (“Young Italy”), which was joined by members of the Carbonari as the society steadily lost its influence. Young Italy was involved in several failed military efforts in the early 1830s.

In 1833–34 the first abortive Mazzinian uprisings took place in Piedmont and Genoa. The latter was organized by Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had joined Young Italy, then fled to France. After an attempt to instigate insurrection in Savoy in 1834 without the blessing of Buonarroti, Mazzini and his followers were summarily excommunicated by a circular from Buonarroti’s Charbonnerie Démocratique Universelle.[60] In 1836, Mazzini left Switzerland and settled in London. Under Lord Palmerston’s guidance, Mazzini had organized all his revolutionary sects: Young Italy, Young Poland, Young Germany which were under the aegis of Young Europe.[61] He spent most of the next two decades in exile or hiding, expanding the organization into his series of national liberation guerrilla movements. Young Europe was the culmination of these groups, which led to him being called by Metternich, “the most dangerous man in Europe.”

Utopian Socialism

Among the influences on Marx was French socialist thought, in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de Saint-Simon, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Charles Fourier. Saint-Amand Bazard became one of the leaders of the Saint-Simonians, followers of the ideas of Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon (1760 – 1825), a Freemason who was inspired by Joseph de Maistre, and who formed the first influential socialist school in France.[62] As noted by Julian Strube, in “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism,” “Indeed, literally every French historiography of socialism that was published between the 1830s and the early 1850s depicted the July Monarchy socialists as the heirs of movements such as ‘mysticism,’ ‘illuminism,’ and ‘theosophy.’”[63] According to Carolina Armenteros, de Maistre’s writings influenced not only conservative political thinkers, but also the utopian socialists.[64]

The majority of the Saint-Simonians consisted of students and alumni of the élite Ecole polytéchnique. The school was established in 1794 by the famous mathematician Gaspard Monge (1746 – 1818) and Lazare Carnot (1753 – 1823) during the French Revolution, and was a military academy under Napoleon in 1804. Monge was a staunch Freemason and a prominent member of the Masonic lodge Neuf Soeurs, and one of Napoleon’s closest friends and advisors.[65] Before Napoleon invaded Egypt and occupied Cairo at the end of the eighteenth century, he commissioned Monge to round up a group of leading scholars, called the lumieres or “lights” to accompany the expedition. Lazare Carnot who was also a Freemason,[66] was known as the Organizer of Victory in the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars. Carnot also met and studied with Benjamin Franklin. In 1800, Napoleon appointed Carnot as Minister of War.

These developments in French Catholicism found their most famous expression in the so-called “Neo-Catholic” movement that emerged around the priest Félicité de Lamennais (1782 – 1854), who wanted to reconcile Catholicism with post-revolutionary society, by establishing a liberal, progressive, and social Catholicism. Likewise, Saint-Simon, in his Lettres d’un habitant de Genève (1803), had suggested the establishment of a scientific religion, a “Cult of Newton,” where scientists were to take the place of priests. In 1825, the year of death, Saint-Simon published his famous Nouveau christianisme, which would become his most successful and arguably most influential writing, whose goal was a “rejuvenation” of Christianity, purging it from the teachings of the corrupted, “heretical” churches and their “superstitious and useless practices.”[67] The Saint-Simonians saw themselves as the heralds of a new Golden Age that would overcome the social fragmentation and realize a harmonious unity of religion, science, and philosophy. According to Saint-Amand Bazard:

The Saint-Simonians were firm believers in the progress of mankind, according to the evolutionist scheme of Fetishism, Polytheism, Monotheism, and a final synthèse: […] following Saint-Simon, and in his name, we will proclaim that humanity has a religious future; that the religion of the future will be bigger, more powerful

than those of the past; that it will be, like all those who have preceded it, the synthesis of all the conceptions of humanity, and of all its ways of being; that it will not only dominate the political order, but that the political order, in its entirety, will be a religious institution […][68]

After the failure of the église saint-simonienne, the école sociétaire of the followers of Charles Fourier (1772 – 1837) became the most influential socialist school in France. Much like Saint-Simon, whom he notably accused of plagiarism, Fourier strove for the establishment of a new “universal science” reconciling science and religion, referring to himself as the successor of both Newton and Jesus Christ.[69] In his Nouvelles transactions sociales, religieuses et scientifiques (1832), Just Muiron (1787 – 1881), one of Fourier’s disciples, declared the identity of Fourier’s ideas with the magnetical and physiological theories of Mesmer, Puységur, and Lavater, as well with the “theosophical” and “mystical” theories of illuminés like Fénelon, Madame de Guyon, Swedenborg, Saint-Martin, and Fabre d’Olivet, a leading French Martinist and astrologer who had been hired by Napoleon as one of his advisors.[70]

Communism

Between 1824 to 1830, Buonarroti was in Brussels where he wrote what would be his most lasting and influential legacies: Conspiration pour l’Egalité dite de Babeuf, suivie du procès auquel elle donna lieu, et des pièces justificatives, etc. (“Babeuf’s Conspiracy of Equals, followed by the trial of which it gave rise, with supporting documents, etc.”). According to Lehning, “By exposing the social implications of the Terror, and by a detailed account of the organisation and the methods and the aims of the conspiracy of 1796, the book became a textbook for the communist movement in the 1830’s and fourties in France, and the fundamental source for its ideology. In fact, with the ‘Conspiration’ started the Jacobin trend in European.”[71] The work was read by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who almost put into production a German edition, which was to be translated by Moses Hess.[72]

Largely non-religious, Marx was a man of the Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire, joining the group of young philosophers whom historians have categorized as the Young Hegelians, and receiving his PhD from the University of Jena. Marx’s philosophy of communism as well represented a further development of Lurianic Kabbalah through the influence of Hegel. [73] Ultimately, Hegel and Marx’ thought was an extension of Jewish apocalyptic literature and the Book of Revelation, through the medium of Joachim of Fiore.[74] According to Norman Cohn, in The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, referring to the influence of Joachim of Fiore:

…it is unmistakably the Joachite phantasy of the three ages that reappeared in, for instance, the theories of historical evolution expounded by the German Idealist philosophers Lessing, Schelling, Fichte and to some extent Hegel; in Auguste Comte’s idea of history as an ascent from the theological through the metaphysical up to the scientific phase; and again in the Marxian dialectic of the three stages of primitive communism, class society and a final communism which is to be the realm of freedom and in which the state will have withered away.[75]

According to Rabbi Antelman in To Eliminate the Opiate, Marx too was of Sabbatean origin, his father Heinrich having been inducted into the sect.[76] As Jewish historian Paul Johnson pointed out in his History of the Jews, Marx’s theory of history resembles the Kabbalistic theories of the Messianic Age of Sabbatai Zevi’s mentor, Nathan of Gaza.[77] Marx’s Jewish name is Chaim Hirschel Mordechai. Marx descended from Talmudic rabbis. His paternal ancestors had provided rabbis to Trier since 1723, a post last held by his grandfather. During the Napoleonic War of the Sixth Coalition, Hirschel Mordechai became a Freemason in 1813, joining their Loge L'Ètoile anséatique (“The Hanseatic Star”) in Osnabrück.[78] After the war, he feigned conversion to Christianity, joining the Evangelical Church of Prussia. Karl Marx’s aunt, married Lion Philips, becoming the grandmother of Anton and Gerard Philips who later founded the Philips Electronics company. One of Marx’s grandparents was Nanette Salomon Barent-Cohen, who belonged to a wealthy Amsterdam family. Her cousin had married Nathan Mayer Rothschild and bore Baron Lionel Nathan Rothschild. Karl Heinrich Marx was born in Trier, Kingdom of Prussia in 1818, an Ashkenazi Jew, to Hirschel Mordechai and Henriette Pressburg.

Marx’s wife was Jenny von Westphalen, whose brother, Ferdinand von Westphalen (1799 – 1876), was the head of the Prussian secret police. Jenny was born into a family from Northern Germany that had been elevated into the petty nobility. Her paternal grandfather, Philipp Westphalen, had been ennobled in 1764 as Edler von Westphalen by Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick—Grand Master of the Strict Observance and member of the Illuminati and the Asiatic Brethren—for his military services, and had served as his de facto “chief of staff” during the Seven Years’ War.[79] Philipp’s wife Jane Wishart of Pittarrow was the descendant of many Scottish and European noble families. Jenny’s father was Philipp’s son, Ludwig von Westphalen (1770 – 1842), who befriended Marx’s father Heinrich. Ludwig became a mentor to the young Karl, introducing him to Homer, Shakespeare—who remained his favorite authors all his life—Voltaire and Racine. It was also Ludwig who first introduced Marx to the teachings of Saint-Simon.[80]

In 1841, Hess met Karl Marx and taught him the philosophy of communism.[81] Hess was an enthusiastic supporter of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809 – 1865) the first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist, marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-nineteenth century.[82] Proudhon was also inspired by Saint-Simon.[83] In 1829, Proudhon supervised the printing of Charles Fourier’s Le Nouveau Monde Industriel et Sociétaire, and their discussions left a strong impression on him and influenced him throughout his life.[84] Proudhon’s best-known assertion is that “property is theft!,” contained in his first major work, What Is Property? Or, an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government (1840). The book attracted the attention of Karl Marx, who started a correspondence with Proudhon. The two influenced each other and they met in Paris while Marx was exiled there.

An important proponent of socialism, Hess collaborated with a number of radical philosophers associated with Marx and Engels, including P.J. Proudhon, Bruno Bauer, Etienne Cabet, Max Stiner, Ferdinand Lassalle and the Luciferian and anarchist Michael Bakunin.[85] Bruno Bauer (1809 – 1882) is also known by his association with Max Stirner and Friedrich Nietzsche. In his well-known work, The Ego and Its Own, Stirner expressed a racist view of world history in which the white individual acts as the apotheosis of all human evolution.[86] Stirner and Bauer were both students of Hegel, and along with Engels and Marx were members of the Young Hegelians. Hess wrote to wrote to his skeptical friend Auerbach:

He is the greatest, perhaps the only true philosopher actually now alive… Dr Marx—that is the name of my idol—is still a very young man (about twenty-four at the most), and will strike the final death blow at medieval religion and politics. He combines philosophical depth with a most biting wit: imagine Rousseau, Voltaire, Holbach, Lessing, Heine and Hegel—not thrown together anyhow, but fused into a single personality—and you will have Dr Marx.[87]

Moses Hess also befriended the “ingenious, prophetic Heine,” as he called him in his unpublished diary of 1836.[88] Karl and Jenny Marx were married in 1843, after which they moved to Paris and befriended his distant relative, Heinrich Heine, who was a member of Young Germany. Heine’s chief patron and benefactor was his uncle, the wealthy banker Salomon Heine (1767 – 1844), called “Rothschild of Hamburg.” Heine recounted that he had been intended by his mother for a career in banking, but that he had an encounter in 1827, he met with Nathan Rothschild, “a fat Jew in Lombard Street, St. Swithin’s Lane,” with whom he wished to be an “apprentice millionaire,” but Rothschild told him he “had no talent for business.”[89] By 1834, however, Heine had struck up a very close relationship with Nathan’s brother Baron James Rothschilds, the head of the French branch of the family.[90]

From 1850, Marx’s private secretary was Wilhelm Pieper (1826 – 1898), who translated some of his works into German or English. Pieper also corresponded with Friedrich Engels, who lived in Manchester. From 1852-56, Pieper found worked as a teacher for Baron Lionel Nathan Rothschild, for his second son Alfred Rothschild (1842 – 1918).[91] At the age of 21, Alfred would take up employment at the NM Rothschild Bank, and in 1868, he became a director of the Bank of England, a post he held for 20 years, until 1889.

Revolutions of 1848

A great number of Frankists who had joined the Rite of Memphis participated in a spree of Marxist-inspired subversive movements, known as the Year of Revolutions of 1848. [92] Most important were the upheavals in France, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Italy and the Austrian Empire, which were largely a consequence of the spread of the influence of the Carbonari.[93] While accepting the importance of “communist” ideology in the revival of the thought of Babeuf, known as Babouvism, some historians contended that its most enduring legacy in the 1848  revolutions was the movement led by that other inveterate conspirator, Louis-Auguste Blanqui (1805 – 1881), a French socialist and political activist, notable for his revolutionary theory of Blanquism, also a member of the Carbonari and an associate of Buonarroti. According to James Billington, “[T]he revived Babeuvist idea of equality was linked with the proletarian class struggle by some of Buonarroti’s followers—and by his successor as chief organizer, and symbol of revolutionary conspiracy—Auguste Blanqui.”[94]

Buonarroti and Auguste Blanqui influenced the early French labor and socialist movements.[95] In May 1839, a Blanquist-inspired uprising took place in Paris, in which participated the League of the Just, forerunners of Karl Marx’s Communist League. In 1847, Blanqui founded the Democratic Association for the Unification of All Countries (DAUAC) as a propaganda organization. Historians describe the DAUAC as a “masonic-carbonari association.”[96] It was co-founded by the Carbonari and the German League of the Outlaws, which in turn became the League of the Just and then the Communist League of Marx and Engels. Marx was its vice-president.[97] A founding member of the League was Jenny Marx’s brother, Edgar von Westphalen (1819 – 1890), was an early member of the Communist Correspondence Committee’s Brussels’ circle.

In 1847, the Communist League asked Marx to write The Communist Manifesto, written jointly with Friedrich Engels, which was first published on February 21, 1848.  In France, as the government of the National Constituent Assembly continued to resist them, the radicals began to protest against it. On May 15, 1848, Parisian workers invaded the Assembly and proclaimed a new Provisional Government. This attempted revolution was quickly suppressed by the National Guard. The leaders of this revolt, including Louis Auguste Blanqui, Armand Barbès, François Vincent Raspail and others, were arrested.

Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions and often violent upheavals that became known as the Revolutions of 1848, including the Netherlands, Italy, the Austrian Empire, and the states of the German Confederation. In discussing the fallout of 1848, Marx remarked: “[E]very tyrant is backed by a Jew, as is every Pope by a Jesuit.”[98] Connecting the convulsions to his knowledge of the occult, Marx also observed, “In the signs that bewilder the middle class, the aristocracy and the poor profits of regression, we recognize our brave friend Robin Goodfellow, the old mole that can work the earth so fast, that worthy pioneer–the Revolution.”[99] Marx then notes that, during the Middle Ages, there existed the Vehmgericht, to avenge the misdeeds of the ruling class. Noting the possible relationship of the Holy Vehm to the Templars, Marx added: “If a red cross was seen marked on a house, people knew that its owner was doomed by the ‘Vehm.’ All the houses of Europe are now marked with the mysterious red cross.”[100]

According to Buonarroti’s biographer Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, “From the codes of his secret societies, there is ample evidence that Buonarroti helped to shape the mentality which led Louis Blanc to link Weishaupt with Babeuf as a founder of the ‘Social International Revolution.’”[101] In France in 1848, King Louis Philippe, the son of Philippe “Égalité,” was overthrown and the revolution of Louis Blanc (1811 – 1882) established the French Second Republic, headed by Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (1808 – 1873), the son of Napoleon’s brother Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, and a knight of the Order of the Garter. Blanc was a French politician and historian whose political and social ideas greatly contributed to the development of socialism in France. Blanc long has figured as one of the leading representatives of the Order of Memphis. Blanc apparently had been connected with this order for a long time, and was indeed one of the organizers of its Supreme Council in London. When the Supreme Council was transferred to London, as the Council's chief speechmaker, Blanc was able to direct its policy and to influence the policy of the Lodge of the Philadelphians without officially becoming a member.[102] Following the Revolution of 1848, Blanc became a member of the provisional government and began advocating for cooperatives which would be initially aided by the government but ultimately controlled by the workers themselves.

However, on December 2, 1851, Louis-Napoleon staged a coup that marked the end of the Second Republic and the beginning of the Second Empire, became the Emperor of the French, as Napoleon III. Although he presented himself as the people’s defender against the oppressive National Assembly, he promised to put an end to the threat of revolutionary violence. Though in his youth Louis-Napoleon had been a member of the Carbonari, they condemned him to death, and almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Mazzini sent groups of terrorists to France with the mission of assassinating Napoleon III, whom he regarded as the greatest opponent to Italian unification. Most of the terrorists came from English territory, with the assistance of their English counterparts. The most significant terrorist act was the attempt of Felice Orsini to assassinate Napoleon III with a grenade on January 14, 1858.

First International

As described by Julian Strube, “the disastrous failure of the Second Republic led to a profound crisis of French socialism and to the demise of the socialist schools that had been dominating reformist discourse before 1848. For their remaining members, the 1850s marked a period of reorientation that was not only determined by the repressions of the authorities but also by power struggles between the different reformist cohorts.”[103] In Europe, a period of harsh reaction followed the widespread Revolutions of 1848. The next major phase of revolutionary activity began almost twenty years later with the founding of the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA), often called the First International in 1864. Among the many European radicals were English Owenites, followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Louis Auguste Blanqui, Irish and Polish nationalists, Italian republicans and German socialists. Among them was the somewhat obscure 46-year-old émigré journalist Karl Marx, who had moved to London in 1849, where he would remain for the rest of his life, and who would soon come to play a decisive role in the organization.

As demonstrated by Boris I. Nicolaevsky, the creation of the First International was the result of the efforts of the Philadelphes of the Rite of Memphis, who had become supporters of Mazzini and Garibaldi.[104] The Grand Lodge of the Philadelphians, brought together primarily, but not exclusively, by French émigres in England, was formally part of an association that, at the beginning of the 1850’s, was known as the radical and revolutionary Order of Memphis, with members such as Louis Blanc, Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Charles Bradlaugh. They instituted a Grand Lodge des Philadelphes, which linked up with the Carbonari, Buonarroti’s La Charbonnerie Démocratique Universelle, Mazzini’s Young Europe and were active in the founding of the Commune Révolutionnaire and the First International.[105] The constitution of the first Lodge of the Philadelphians in England was ratified by the Supreme Council of the Order (Conseil Suprême de I'Ordre Maçonnique de Memphis) on January 31, 1851. According to Boris I. Nicolaevsky, “Not only did they trace their forebears to ancient Egyptian priests and to the legendary Chaldean magi who went to Bethlehem to pay tribute to the Christ child, but they preserved the 96 grades of initiation and the post of Le Grand Hiérophante at their head.”[106] Whereas its founder Jean-Etienne Marconi was indifferent to politics, the Supreme Council of the order for 1855 was composed entirely of Republicans and Socialists of the extreme left of the National Assembly of 1848-49. English Freemasonry never recognized the Philadelphians, and its publications maintained that they were not Masons but an ordinary secret society with revolutionary aspirations.[107]

The Philadelphians were active supporters of revolutionary movements across Europe, and established a separate organization intended to maintain contact revolutionaries in different countries, called the International Association, which existed from 1855 to 1859. Its statutes set forth as its principal tasks spreading to “the doctrine of solidarity” and preparing to implement “the ideal of our hearts, the Universal Democratic and Social Republic.” The Philadelphians were also supportive of individual acts of political terror, such as the terrorist activities organized by Mazzini and his supporters.

Although some with the International Association rejected him, in 1858-59 its leaders among the Philadelphians shifted to rapprochement with Mazzini. As the movement to support Garibaldi became the core of the Philadelphians’ activities during the second phase of their history from 1859 to 1864. French historian Jean Bossu cites a quotation from Le Monde Maçonninque of 1874, which states that in 1859 Garibaldi, Mazzini, Charles Bradlaugh, and Louis Blanc were members of the London Lodge of the “United Philadelphians.”[108] In the 1860’s, Mazzini, Garibaldi, and the Philadelphians formed a bloc that replaced the International Association of 1855-59. A number of other countries joined in the bloc, notably Belgium and Switzerland. Their major project was the convocation of an international democratic congress and the creation of an international association. The preparatory work for the congress was carried out in the name of Garibaldi, who signed the official invitation. The congress was held in Brussels in 1963. The congress adopted a resolution to create an Association Fédérative Universelle de la Démocratie.

The builders of the earliest organizations that formed the First International dated its birth not from the London meeting of September 24, 1864, at which neither the Belgians nor the Swiss were present, but from the Brussels Congress. The International Workingmen's Association (IWA), often called the First International, was an international organization founded in 1864 in St. Martin’s Hall, London, which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist and anarchist groups and trade unions. Its first congress was held in 1866 in Geneva. Among the many European radicals were English Owenites, followers of Proudhon and Blanqui, Irish and Polish nationalists, Italian republicans and German socialists. A great role in the creation of the First International was played also by representatives of the Philadelphians. The most important, Victor Le Lubez, personally undertook the work of organizing the 1864 meeting. The General Council of the International was selected by Le Lubez, and included a large and influential group of Philadelphians. Of eight non-Englishmen elected to the first General Council, six were Philadelphians or supporters of Mazzini.[109]

Anarchism

Hess also assisted in the conversion of the Russian revolutionary, Mikhail Bakunin (1814 – 1876) to the revolutionary communism that preceded the anarchism of his later life. Bakunin’s enormous prestige as an activist made him one of the most famous ideologues in Europe, and he gained substantial influence among radicals throughout Russia and Europe. Bakunin began to read the French encyclopédistes, leading to enthusiasm for the philosophy of Fichte, through whom he discovered the works of Hegel. Despite his atheism, Bakunin also expressed millennial aspirations when he declared, “there will be a qualitative transformation, a new living, life-giving revelation, a new heaven and a new earth, a young and mighty world in which all our present dissonances will be resolved into a harmonious whole.”

Bakunin was a Grand Orient Freemason, a disciple of Illuminati founder Adam Weishaupt, and an avowed Satanist.[110] Bakunin’s philosophy of nihilism rejected all religious and political authority, social traditions, and traditional morality as standing in opposition to “freedom.” Bakunin argued that, “The idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty, and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind, in theory and practice.” Consequently, Bakunin reversed Voltaire’s famous aphorism that if God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent Him, writing instead that “if God really existed, it would be necessary to abolish Him.”[111] In God and the State, Bakunin shared the full breadth of his Luciferian Gnostic creed:

Jehovah, who of all the good gods adored by men was certainly the most jealous, the most vain, the most ferocious, the most unjust, the most bloodthirsty, the most despotic, and the most hostile to human dignity and liberty—Jehovah had just created Adam and Eve, to satisfy we know not what caprice; no doubt to while away his time, which must weigh heavy on his hands in his eternal egoistic solitude, or that he might have some new slaves. He generously placed at their disposal the whole earth, with all its fruits and animals, and set but a single limit to this complete enjoyment. He expressly forbade them from touching the fruit of the tree of knowledge. He wished, therefore, that man, destitute of all understanding of himself, should remain an eternal beast, ever on all-fours before the eternal God, his creator and his master. But here steps in Satan, the eternal rebel, the first freethinker and the emancipator of worlds. He makes man ashamed of his bestial ignorance and obedience; he emancipates him, stamps upon his brow the seal of liberty and humanity, in urging him to disobey and eat of the fruit of knowledge.[112]

To Bakunin all morality was relative: “Human nature is so constituted that the propensity for evil is always intensified by external circumstances, and the morality of the individual depends much more on the conditions of his existence and the environment in which he lives than on his own will.”[113] In his own words, Bakunin sought, “the unchaining of what is today called the evil passions and the destruction of what is called public order,” and made the declaration: “Let us put our trust in the eternal spirit which destroys and annihilates [Lucifer] only because it is the unsearchable and eternally creative source of all life—the passion for destruction is also a creative passion!”[114]

When Bakunin arrived in Paris in 1842 he met Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Karl Marx. Proudhon himself claimed in to have been initiated in 1847 into the Besançon Lodge, Sincérité, Parfaite Union et Constante Amitié.[115] 1847, Proudhon left this job and finally settled in Paris, where he was now becoming celebrated as a leader of innovation. Proudhon was arrested for insulting Louis-Napoléon and was imprisoned from 1849 to 1852. After his release, he remained in exile from 1858 to 1862 in Belgium. Upon the liberalization of the empire in 1863, he returned to France.

Bakunin created the semi-secret Social Democratic Alliance, which had a direct affiliation to the Illuminati. He conceived of it as a revolutionary avant-garde within Marx’s First International, from which he was expelled in 1872. At first, Bakunin’s collectivist anarchist associates worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Bakunin characterized Marx’s ideas as centralist and predicted that if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the ruling class they had fought against. The First International eventually split between two main tendencies within the organization over the question of political, parliamentary action. The anarchist wing represented by Bakunin and the state socialist wing represented by Marx.

Alliance Israëlite Universelle

Hess was a leading exponent of the masonic-style order, Alliance Israëlite Universelle, whose American arm was the B’nai B’rith.[116] The Alliance, which was founded in 1860 by Benjamin Disraeli (1804 – 1881), as well as Moses Montefiore (1784 –1885) and Adolphe Crémieux (1796 – 1880), had as its ultimate goal, “the great work of humanity, the annihilation of error fanaticism, the union of human society in a faithful and solid fraternity.”[117] Montefiore was born in Livorno, Italy, a stronghold of the Sabbatean sect. Livorno was an important center of masonic activity in Italy. Among 34 lodges active in Italy between 1815 and 1860, no less than 19 were located in Livorno, that is, over 50 percent of all Italian lodges.[118] In 1802 Nathan Mayer Rothschild was initiated into Freemasonry at the Emulation Lodge, while Montefiore was initiated into Moira Lodge in 1812.[119] Montefiore’s sister, Henriette (or Hannah) married Nathan Rothschild, who headed the family’s banking business in Britain for whom Montefiore’s firm acted as stockbrokers.

Montefiore also a member of Bevis Marks Synagogue, which was dominated by Jewish Freemasons who were early members of the Grand Lodge of England, and to which belonged Isaac da Costa, before he moved to Charleston to found Scottish Rite Freemasonry.[120] Amongst other notable members of the Bevis Marks Synagogue’s congregation Isaac D’Israeli, Benjamin Disraeli’s father. Disraeli is the only British prime minister to have been of Jewish birth. He was Grand Master of Freemasonry, as well as knight of the Order of the Garter.  It was in Coningsby, that he confessed, through a character named Sidonia, modeled on his friend Lionel de Rothschild, that, “the world is governed by very different personages from what is imagined by those who are not behind the scenes.”  Of the influence of the secret societies, Disraeli also remarked, in Parliamentary debate:

lt is useless to deny… a great part of Europe—the whole of Italy and France, and a great portion of Germany, to say nothing of other countries—are covered with a network of these secret societies, just as the superficies of the earth is now being covered with railroads.  And what are their objects?  They do not attempt to conceal them.  They do not want constitutional government.  They do not want ameliorated institutions; they do not want provincial councils nor the recording of votes; they want… an end to ecclesiastical establishments…[121]

Cremieux belonged to the Lodge of Mizraim, the Scottish Rite and the Grand Orient of France. Crémieux was initiated into Freemasonry in 1818, at the lodge of Bienfait anonyme in Nîmes, a dependent Grand Orient of France. He was co-opted in 1866 to the 33º of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite and he took the head of the Supreme Council of France in 1869 as Sovereign Grand Commander. When he returned to France, Count Alexandre de Grasse, Marquis de Tilly, a founding member of the world’s first Supreme Council, that of Charleston, in 1801, created the Supreme Council of France in 1804. The Supreme Council of France was one of the French Masonic organizations responsible for managing the high grades of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite within the Grand Orient of France until 1815. It became independent in 1821, and was at the origin of the creation of the second Grand Lodge of France in 1894. Crémieux also succeeded to Grand Master the Order of Mizraim at the death of Jean Baptist Viennet, under whom the Grand Orient and the Scottish Rite were united.[122]

Crémieux’s connection with Napoleon’s nephew Louis Bonaparte and his brother, who both were affiliated to the Carbonari, would suggest that he was also connected with this secret society. In his youth, Crémieux had been an admirer of Napoleon I and later became an intimate friend as well as the legal adviser of the Bonaparte family. In 1848, when the republican revolution triumphed in Paris, Crémieux advised King Louis-Philippe I to abdicate in favor of his grandson Philippe d’Orleans. Crémieux became Minister of Justice in the provisional government that proclaimed the Second Republic, and he advocated for the candidature of his friend Louis Bonaparte, who was elected president of the French Second Republic. However, after he opposed Napoleon III’s seizure of power in 1851, Crémieux was thrown in prison. After his release, he became a defender of the communist associates of Marx, including Louis Blanc and others. Like the Carbonari, he directed his efforts against Napoleon III and he consorted with all the Emperor’s enemies, until the defeat of the French army and the Emperor’s capture by Prussia and its allies in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.[123]

As president of the Board of Deputies of British Jews from 1835 to 1874, Montefiore’s correspondence in 1841–42 with the British consul in Damascus Charles Henry Churchill (1807 –1869), who as British consul in Damascus responsible for Ottoman Syria under Lord Palmerston’s Foreign Office proposed the first political plan for Zionism and the creation of the state of Israel in the region of Ottoman Palestine. The correspondence came in the wake of the Damascus affair of 1840, which drew widespread international attention when thirteen notable members of the Jewish community of Damascus who were arrested and accused of murdering a Christian monk for ritual purposes. Backed by Palmerston and Churchill, Montefiore and Crémieux led a delegation to the ruler of Syria, Muhammad Ali, and eventually secured the release of the captives. He also persuaded the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire to issue an edict forbidding the circulation of blood libels.[124]

Kingdom of Italy

Moses Hess wrote in Rome and Jerusalem that “Papal Rome symbolizes to the Jews an inexhaustible well of poison.”[125] Referring to Garibaldi’s assault on the Papacy, Hess remarked:

With the disappearance of the hostility of Christianity to culture, there cease also its animosity to Judaism. With the liberation of the Eternal City on the banks of the Tiber, begins the liberation of the Eternal City on the slopes of Moriah; the renaissance of Italy heralds the rise of Judah.[126]

The process of Italian unification began with the revolutions of 1848, inspired by previous rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s that contested the outcome of the Congress of Vienna, and was completed when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, under Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Like his father, Victor Emmanuel II was a knight of the Order of the Garter as well as knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Victor Immanuel II’s mother was Maria Theresa of Austria (1801 – 1855), who was the double granddaughter of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I. Victor Emmanuel II’s titles, which would be used during the unified Kingdom of Italy which lasted from 1860–1946, included:

Victor Emmanuel II, by the Grace of God and the Will of the Nation, King of Italy, King of Sardinia, Cyprus, Jerusalem, Armenia, Duke of Savoy, Count of Maurienne, Marquis (of the Holy Roman Empire) in Italy; Prince of Piedmont, Carignano, Oneglia, Poirino, Trino; Prince and Perpetual vicar of the Holy Roman Empire; Prince of Carmagnola, Montmellian with Arbin and Francin, Prince bailiff of the Duchy of Aosta, Prince of Chieri, Dronero, Crescentino, Riva di Chieri e Banna, Busca, Bene, Brà, Duke of Genoa, Monferrat, Aosta, Duke of Chablais, Genevois, Duke of Piacenza, Marquis of Saluzzo (Saluces), Ivrea, Susa, del Maro, Oristano, Cesana, Savona, Tarantasia, Borgomanero e Cureggio, Caselle, Rivoli, Pianezza, Govone, Salussola, Racconigi con Tegerone, Migliabruna e Motturone, Cavallermaggiore, Marene, Modane e Lanslebourg, Livorno Ferraris, Santhià Agliè, Centallo e Demonte, Desana, Ghemme, Vigone, Count of Barge, Villafranca, Ginevra, Nizza, Tenda, Romont, Asti, Alessandria, del Goceano, Novara, Tortona, Bobbio, Soissons, Sant'Antioco, Pollenzo, Roccabruna, Tricerro, Bairo, Ozegna, delle Apertole, Baron of Vaud e del Faucigni, Lord of Vercelli, Pinerolo, della Lomellina, della Valle Sesia, del marchesato di Ceva, Overlord of Monaco, Roccabruna and 11/12th of Menton, Noble patrician of Venice, patrician of Ferrara.

Victor Emmanuel II, as reported by Jacques-Cretineau Joly in 1859 from documents purportedly communicated to him by Pope Gregory XVII, belonged to the Alta Vendita, the highest lodge of the Carbonari and a reincarnation of the Illuminati. The details of the Carbonari conspiracy were taken from The Permanent Instruction of the Alta Vendita, a document originally produced by the Italian Carbonari, first published by Crétineau-Joly in his book L’Église romaine en face de la Révolution in 1859. It was popularised in the English-speaking world by Monsignor George F. Dillon in 1885 with his book the War of Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civilization, where he claimed that the author “Piccolo Tigre” was supposedly the pseudonym of a Jewish Freemason. According to the Permanent Instructions of the Alta Vendita:

Ever since we have established ourselves as a body of action, and that order has commenced to reign in the bosom of the most distant lodge, as in that one nearest the centre of action, there is one thought which has profoundly occupied the men who aspire to universal regeneration. That is the thought of the enfranchisement of Italy, from which must one day come the enfranchisement of the entire world, the fraternal republic, and the harmony of humanity.[127]

With Italy then a hodge-podge of states, Mazzini led a revolt in 1848 against the “despotic” and “theocratic” regime of the Pope in central Italy. In March 1849, a constituent assembly abolished the temporal authority of the papacy and proclaimed the Roman Republic. However, France, under the leadership of Louis-Napoleon, quickly organized a military intervention, crushing Mazzini’s political experiment in Rome and reinstated the pope. After the failure of the Mazzini’s 1848 revolution, Garibaldi took the leadership of the Italian nationalists who began to look to the Kingdom of Sardinia as the leaders of the unification movement. Like all the various duchies and city-states on the Italian peninsula and associated islands, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability under alternating governments. After a short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated in 1849 in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II. In 1852, a liberal ministry under Count of Cavour, like Emmanuel II also a prominent Freemason, was installed and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the key source of support driving Italian unification.

Dillon reported that, as communicated by Major-General Burnaby MP to the Jesuit Reverend Sir Christopher Bellew, when Cavour and Palmerston determined the moment opportune, they unleashed the Italian Revolution in conjunction with the Masonic lodges. A constitution had been conceded to the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1848, which finally became the Kingdom of a united Italy in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II as king. However, following the unification of most of Italy, tensions between the monarchists and republicans erupted. Garibaldi was finally arrested for challenging Cavour’s leadership, setting off worldwide controversy. In 1866, Otto von Bismarck and Victor Emmanuel II formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War. In exchange, Prussia would allow Italy to annex Austrian-controlled Venice. When King Emmanuel agreed, the Third Italian War of Independence broke out. Though Italy fared poorly in the war against Austria, Prussia’s victory allowed Italy to annex Venice.

Iron and Blood

According to Margiotta, Jewish banker Gerson von Bleichröder, as the German agent of the Palladian Rite, financed Bismarck’s plans for German unification.[128] Despite his known anti-Semitism, Bismarck’s mother, Luise Wilhelmine Mencken, had often been said to be Jewish.[129] Bismarck’s eldest son Herbert (1849 – 1904) married Countess Marguerite, who was the daughter of Georg Anton, Count of Hoyos and Alice Whitehead. Alice was a granddaughter of Sir James Whitehead, at one time the leader of the London Jewish community.[130] Alice’s father was Robert Whitehead (1823 – 1905), an English engineer who was most famous for developing the first effective self-propelled naval torpedo. Alice’s brother John Whitehead, was the father of Agathe Whitehead, wife of Captain Georg von Trapp and mother of seven children who were the inspiration behind the movie The Sound of Music.

The revolution in France also inspired the German states to make a proposal for a unified German country with a national parliament. The mainly German revolutions of 1848–49 sought unification of Germany under a single constitution as part of the resolution of “The German Question.” In 1848, German liberals and nationalists united in revolution, forming the Frankfurt Parliament. In general, the left favored a republican Großdeutsche Lösung (“Greater German solution”). Prussia promoted the Kleindeutsche Lösung (“Lesser German solution”), which excluded the whole Austrian Empire with its German and its non-German possessions. They argued that Prussia, as the only Great Power with a predominantly German-speaking population, should lead the unified Germany.

On March 30, 1849, the Frankfurt parliament offered the title of Kaiser to the Prussian king Frederick William IV (1795 – 1861), a knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Frederick William IV was the son of Frederick William III, knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, whose father Frederick William II, the nephew of Frederick II the Great, belonged to the Golden and Rosy Cross and fell under the influence of two other members, Asiatic Brethren Johann Christoph von Wöllner and Johann Rudolf von Bischoffwerder.[131] Frederick William IV was a patron of the grandson of Moses Mendelssohn, the composer Felix Mendelssohn. Although he refused the title, the Frankfurt Parliament did manage to draft a constitution and reach an agreement on the Kleindeutsche solution.

After the German Revolution of 1848/1849, Frederick William IV appointed Karl Marx’s brother-in-law, Jenny’ the step-brother, Ferdinand von Westphalen (1799 – 1876), as Prussian Minister of the Interior and interim Minister for Agricultural Affairs. Westphalen was the conservative Interior Minister of Prussia from 1850–58. Hajo Holborn, a historian with experience working for the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), considered Ferdinand to be the chief conspirator in the intrigues of the Prussian government. His espionage network monitored friends and enemies, even Frederick William IV’s brother, Prince Wilhelm, Wilhelm I of Prussia (1797 – 1888), the heir to the Prussian throne, when he criticized the Crimean War.[132]

Otto von Bismarck was elected to the Prussian parliament in 1849. In 1857, Frederick William IV suffered a paralyzing stroke, and his brother Wilhelm I of Prussia—a knight of the Order of the Garter and of the Order of the Golden Fleece—took over the Prussian government as Regent. Wilhelm was initially seen as a moderate ruler, whose friendship with liberal Britain was symbolized by the recent marriage of his son Frederick III, German Emperor (1831 –1888), also a knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, to Queen Victoria’s eldest daughter, Victoria, Princess Royal. Wilhelm appointed Bismarck as Prussia’s ambassador to the Russian Empire. Wilhelm also appointed Helmuth von Moltke (1800 – 1891) as the new Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army, and Albrecht von Roon (1803 – 1879) as Minister of War with the job of reorganizing the army. Over the next twelve years, Bismarck, Moltke and Roon transformed Prussia. In May 1862, visits Bismarck’s visits to France and Britain enabled him to meet with Napoleon III, and Lord Palmerston, Foreign Secretary Earl Russell, and Benjamin Disraeli, also a knight of the Order of the Garter.

Wilhelm became King of Prussia upon his death in 1861. In 1862, he appointed Bismarck Minister President and Foreign Minister. Bismarck made a famous speech to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in which he expounded on the use of “iron and blood” to achieve Prussia's goals:

Prussia must concentrate and maintain its power for the favorable moment which has already slipped by several times. Prussia's boundaries according to the Vienna treaties are not favorable to a healthy state life. The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions – that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 – but by iron and blood.[133]

Between 1864 and 1870, Prussia, led by Bismarck, fought three campaigns, including the Second Schleswig, the Austro-Prussian and the Franco-Prussian war, at the end of which it was able to consolidate the different parts of Germany under the Prussian crown. The German-American historian Fritz Stern, author of a double-biography, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder, and the Building of the German Empire, has shown that von Bismarck’s successes were heavily attributable to the financial support of Gerson Bleichröder. Bleichröder was the eldest son of Samuel Bleichröder, who founded the banking firm of S. Bleichröder in 1803 in Berlin. Gerson became the head of the banking firm upon the death of his father in 1855.

The Bleichröder bank maintained close contacts with the Rothschild family, acting as a branch office of the Rothschilds’ bank in Berlin. However, the Rothschild Bank was largely caught in the middle of the growing conflict between Prussia and the pro-Austrian German Confederation, whose banking interests it represented. Bismarck consulted Baron Mayer Carl von Rothschild (1820 – 1886), the grandson of Mayer Amschel Rothschild, who recommended Gerson Bleichröder, who took over Bismarck's control of the Prussian state and the German Empire.[134] Bleichröder was also able to help Bismarck amass a large personal fortune, through sometimes dubious means as well as an important source of intelligence. Bleichröder maintained a network of contacts and agents all over Europe, so that Bismarck could remark, “Through Bleichrtider I am accustomed to receive important political news from Paris or St. Petersburg usually eight days earlier than through my ambassadors.”[135] As Bleichröder himself once remarked, “The disposition of our materially minded century is to squeeze as much interest from capital as possible.”[136]

In 1872, Bleichröder became the second Jew in Prussia to be ennobled. Bleichröder was preceded only by Abraham Oppenheim (1804 – 1878, another banker close to the regime, who was created a baron and being admitted to the inner circle of Wilhelm I of Prussia, a close friend of Bleichröder. Through Oppenheim’s marriage in 1834 to Charlotte Beyfus, the granddaughter of Meyer Amschel Rothschild, the Oppenheim family became relatives of the Rothschils. Together with Bleichröder and other bankers, Oppenheim advised the king on financing the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 through government bonds. At the Congress of Berlin, in 1878, which was charged with reorganizing the political order of the Balkans, Bleichroeder, together with Adolphe Crémieux and Moses Montefiore, worked tirelessly to force Romania to emancipate its Jews in return for its desire to have its independence recognized.[137]

The Franco-Prussian War, which had begun in 1870, between the Second French Empire of Napoleon III and the German states of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia, under Otto von Bismarck. The conflict was caused by French fears of the Prussian ambitions to extend German unification. Some historians argue that Bismarck deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on Prussia in order to draw the independent southern German states—Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt—into an alliance with the North German Confederation dominated by Prussia.[138] During July 1870, Gerson Bleichröder was in frequent contact with the Rothchilds in Paris, who were serving as bankers to Napoleon III and the French government, to ascertain Napoleon's true intentions with regard to war.[139]

To keep the large Prussian Army at bay, France abandoned its positions in Rome, which protected the remnants of the Papal States and Pius IX, in order to fight the Prussians. Italy benefited from Prussia's victory against France by being able to take over the Papal States from French authority. Rome was captured by the kingdom of Italy after several battles against official troops of the papacy. Italian unification was completed, and shortly afterward Italy’s capital was moved to Rome. In 1871, when Frederick William IV’s brother, Wilhelm I of Prussia, was proclaimed German Kaiser, and the Second German Reich to succeed the First Reich, the Holy Roman Empire, was born and Bismarck became the first Chancellor of the unified German Empire. In 1840, shortly before his father’s death, Wilhelm I was initiated in a special lodge in Berlin, headed by the Grand Masters of the three Berlin Grand Lodges. His induction into the order was in compliance with his father’s wishes that he not join any one particular lodge or system, but that he belong to every lodge in the kingdom and assume the protectorate of all of them.[140]

Palladian Rite

On September 20, 1870, the day on which Cadorna’s forces entered Rome, the constitution of central high masonry was decreed and signed between by Mazzini and Albert Pike, who consolidated their Masonic power under the Palladian Rite.[141] The original Palladian Rite had been founded in Paris in 1737. The existence of the order was discussed by the Masonic historian Ragon.[142] The order is inferred to have been connected with the legendary Palladium of the Knights Templar, well known under the title of Baphomet. The original Palladion was a wooden image of Pallas Athena said to have fallen from heaven in answer to the prayer of Ilus, the founder of Troy. Together, the four Masons were to have completed an agreement to create a supreme universal rite of Masonry that would arch over all the other rites. Little was heard of the Palladium until in 1801, Isaac Long, the Jewish founder of the Scottish Rite in Charleston, was said to have carried the original Baphomet and the skull of the Templar Grand Master Jacques de Molay from Paris to the United States.[143]

Many historians claim that Pike was selected by Mazzini to head the Illuminati in the United States in 1872.[144] Mazzini wrote Pike in January, 1870, about the need to create a “superrite” inside Freemasonry:

We must allow all of the federations (the Masons) to continue just as they are… We must create a super-rite, which will remain unknown to which we will call those Masons of high degree whom we shall select… These men must be pledged to the strictest secrecy. Through this supreme rite, we will govern all Freemasonry which will become the one international center, the more powerful because its direction will be unknown.[145]

Pike received the 4th through the 32nd Degrees in March 1853 from Dr. Albert G. Mackey (1807 –1881), in Charleston, South Carolina, and was appointed Deputy Inspector for Arkansas that same year. Mackey, who was born in Charleston, is best known for his books and articles about freemasonry, particularly The Symbolism of Freemasonry (1882). Both Pike and Mackey subscribed to the historical theory that Freemasonry was descended from the ancient mysteries of Egypt, Greece, and the Middle East. At this time, the degrees of the Scottish Rite were rudimentary, and often only included a brief history and legend of each degree as well as other brief details which usually lacked a workable ritual. In 1855, the Supreme Council appointed a committee to develop rituals for the 4th through the 32nd Degrees, composed of Pike, Mackey, John H. Honour, William S. Rockwell and Claude P. Samory. Of these five committee members, Pike did all the work. In 1857, Pike completed his first revision of the 4th to the 32nd ritual, and printed 100 copies. This revision, which Mackey dubbed the “Magnum Opus” was never adopted by the Supreme Council. Though, according to Arturo de Hoyos, the Scottish Rite’s Grand Historian, the Magnum Opus became the basis for future ritual revisions. In March 1858, Pike was elected a member of the Supreme Council for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, and in following year 1859 he became its Grand Commander. About 1870, he and the Supreme Council moved to Washington, DC, and in 1884 his revision of the rituals was complete.[146]

Pike also wrote lectures for all the degrees which were published in 1871 under the title Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, which was mostly plagiarized from Eliphas Lévi’s Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie.[147] A copy of Morals and Dogma was given to every new member of the Southern Jurisdiction from the early 1900s until 1969. Morals and Dogma was the first philosophical document of the Mother Supreme Council, Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction. To join the Supreme Council, one must attain the 32° of the Scottish Rite, and then be conferred the honorary 33°. It oversees the Scottish Rite in thirty-five states, and is headquartered in the House of the Temple in Washington DC. The building was the setting for several key scenes of Dan Brown’s The Lost Symbol. It was designed by American architect John Russell Pope, whose firm is widely known for designing of the National Archives and Records Administration building, the Jefferson Memorial and the West Building of the National Gallery of Art. The House of the Temple also contains Pike’s remains.

In Morals and Dogma, Pike proclaims, “LUCIFER, the Light-bearer! Strange and mysterious name to give to the Spirit of Darkness! Lucifer, the Son of the Morning! Is it he who bears the Light, and with its splendors intolerable blinds feeble, sensual or selfish Souls? Doubt it not!” To Pike, the true god of Freemasonry are the numerous dying-gods of the Mysteries, whom he equated with Osiris and Hermes, or Sirius, the “Dog Star.” Sirius’ symbol is the Blazing Star of Freemasonry, also the “eye in the triangle,” or the “all seeing eye” of Rosicrucian and Masonic iconography, found on the reverse side of the American dollar bill, which has come to be recognized as the symbol of the “Illuminati.”

Under Pike’s guidance, the Scotch Rite extended and became dominant in Freemasonry worldwide. When Mazzini intended the centralization of the order, he chose to work with Pike. Out of this secret partnership there was created on September 20, 1870—they day the Italian troops entered the Eternal City—a Supreme Rite and Central Organisation of Universal High Grade Masonry, the two founders also sharing the power between them. A Supreme Dogmatic Directory was created at Charleston, with Pike at its head, under the title of Sovereign Pontiff of Universal Freemasonry. Mazzini took over the Supreme Executive, having Rome as its center, under the title of Sovereign Chief of Political Action. Subsequently, five Central Grand Directories were established—at Washington for North America, Monte Video for South America, Naples for Europe, Calcutta for the Eastern World, and Port Louis in Mauritius for Africa. A Sovereign Universal Administrative Directory was fixed at Berlin subsequently to the death of Mazzini in 1872. As a result, Pike was said to have held all of Freemasonry under his control, by means of a two-fold apparatus—the Palladium and the Scottish Rite.[148]

The existence of the Palladian Rite was publicly revealed in 1892 by Domenico Margiotta and Dr. Bataille, in Le Diable au XIXe siècle (“The Devil in the 19th Century”). Their books appeared at a time when numerous tracts critical of Freemasonry were published, culminating in Pope Leo XIII’s condemnation, the encyclical Humanum genus, in 1884. One of the first works asserting a connection between Satanism and Freemasonry was published in 1867 by the well-known French Catholic apologist, Mgr. Louis-Gaston de Ségur (1820 – 1881). The thesis of the existence of a Satanist “High Masonry” was published in 1880, titled was Maçons et Juifs (“Masons and Jews”), and signed by “C.C. de Saint-André”. Mgr. Léon Meurin (1825 – 1895), a Catholic Jesuit Bishop, published La Franc-Maçonnerie, Synagogue de Satan (“Freemasonry: The Synagogue of Satan”) in 1893. Samuel Paul Rosen (1840 – 1907), an ex-rabbi and a Freemason from Poland who converted to Catholicism, claimed that the Jews too were victims and concluded: “the omnipotence of Satan is the final objective and the supreme secret of Freemasonry.”[149]

Bataille’s book was later revealed to be supposedly the work of journalist and editor Gabriel Jogand-Pagés, also known as Leo Taxil, a swindler and the author of various screeds against the Catholic Church, but who later claimed to have repented and converted to Catholicism, and succeeded in gaining the endorsement of the Pope himself for his anti-Masonic writings. The formula to Taxil’s literary success had been “the fusion of anticlericalism with pornography.”[150] Taxil was condemned to eight years in 1876, and had to escape to Geneva, Switzerland, where he attempted to launch initiatives in favor of his friend Garibaldi. In Garibaldi’s honor he founded a Young Urban Legion. When he returned to Paris in 1879, he continued with his anticlerical publications, some of which received prefaces from Garibaldi. In 1880, Taxil was received as a Freemason in the Paris lodge Le Temple des Amis de l’Honneur Français. However, the following year, Taxil was forced to leave Freemasonry, which in 1882 expelled him declared an undesirable.[151]

Masonic historian A.E. Waite, who otherwise refutes the Taxil hoax, concedes that Margiotta, who claimed to have known Vaughan, is “a man of unimpeachable integrity.”[152] Margiotta’s many Masonic titles included was Secretary of the Lodge Savonarola of Florence; Venerable of the Lodge Giordano Bruno of Palmi; Sovereign Grand Inspector General, 33rd degree, of the Ancient and Accepted Scotch Rite; Sovereign Prince of the Order of the Rite of Memphis and Misraïm; Acting Member of the Sovereign Sanctuary of the Oriental Order of Memphis and Misraïm of Naples; Inspector of the Misraïm Lodges of the Calabrias and of Sicily; Honorary Member of the National Grand Orient of Haiti Acting Member of the Supreme Federal Council of Naples; Inspector-General of all the Masonic Lodges of the three Calabrias; Grand Master, ad vitam, of the Oriental Masonic Order of Misraïm or Egypt of Paris; Commander of the Order of Knights-Defenders of Universal Masonry; honorary Member, ad vitam, of the Supreme General Council of the Italian Federation of Palermo; Permanent Inspector and Sovereign Delegate of the Grand Central Directory of Naples for Europe (Universal High-grade Masonry).

According to Waite, that Universal Masonry was centralized under the Palladian Rite, with Albert Pike at its head, was supported by Margiotta by the citation of a document from 1874, and being an authority from Charleston for the constitution of a secret federation of Jewish Freemasons, with a center at Hamburg, under the title of Sovereign Patriarchal Council. Waite, however, builds his refutation of Margiotta by pointing out the documents of the Ancient and Accepted Scotch Rite, of whose supremacy there is no doubt, and he therefore suggests that what Margiotta terms Universal Freemasonry is not the Palladian, but simply the Scottish Rite.[153]

Under Pike’s guidance, the Scottish Rite extended and became dominant in Freemasonry worldwide. When Mazzini intended the centralization of the order, he chose to work with Pike. Out of this secret partnership there was created on September 20, 1870—they day the Italian troops entered the Eternal City—a Supreme Rite and Central Organisation of Universal High Grade Masonry, the two founders also sharing the power between them. A Supreme Dogmatic Directory was created at Charleston, with Pike at its head, under the title of Sovereign Pontiff of Universal Freemasonry. Mazzini took over the Supreme Executive, having Rome as its center, under the title of Sovereign Chief of Political Action. Subsequently, five Central Grand Directories were established—at Washington for North America, Monte Video for South America, Naples for Europe, Calcutta for the Eastern World, and Port Louis in Mauritius for Africa. A Sovereign Universal Administrative Directory was fixed at Berlin subsequently to the death of Mazzini in 1872. As a result, Pike was said to have held all of Freemasonry under his control, by means of a two-fold apparatus—the Palladium and the Scottish Rite.[154]

Margiotta reports that Pike was the President of the Supreme Dogmatic Directory, composed of ten Brothers of the highest grades who formed his Supreme Grand College of Emeritus in Charleston Masons. Mazzini himself established himself as the Sovereign Executive Directory of High Masonry, which he headquartered in Rome. According to Margiotta, Pike and Mazzini completed the organization of High Masonry by establishing four Grand Central Directories for the whole world, to gather intelligence for their political agenda and for propaganda. These were: The Grand Central Directories for North America located at Washington; for South America, at Montevideo, Uruguay; for Europe, at Naples; and for Asia and Oceania, at Calcutta. A Central Sub-Directory for Africa was founded at Port Louis, Mauritius; and following the death of Mazzini, the Supreme Chief constituted a new Universal Sovereign Administrative Directory at Berlin which ranked after the Sovereign Executive Directories and before the four Great Central Directories. Two special delegates are permanently attached to the Directory of Berlin, one for propaganda and one for finance which was appointed to Gerson Bleichröder.[155]

The Margiotta and Bataille also claimed that the Palladian Rite was Luciferian in nature, admitted men and women, and indulged in various black magic rituals that were often sexual in nature. A respected Masonic historian, Robert Macoy, who was instrumental in the founding of the Order of the Eastern Star, had already included the “Order of the Palladium” in his authoritative Dictionary of Freemasonry published in 1866, referring to it as a lodge that admitted both sexes, with symbolic references that hinted to rites of a sexual orientation.[156] According to Margiotta, the Palladian followed a Gnostic doctrine which affirmed the existence of two equal first principles, Adonai and Lucifer. Lucifer is the god of good, while Adonai, the god of the Bible, is the prince of darkness and the true Satan. Given the current state of the world, they inferred that it was under the mastery of the evil god. They have therefore sided with Lucifer, with whom they cooperate in order to ensure his triumph. He, in turn, communicates with them to encourage and strengthen their work of preparing his kingdom, and he promises to raise up a Savior among them who is the Antichrist, their leader and king to come.[157]

Taxil’s chief source was Diana Vaughan, a supposed descendant of the Rosicrucian alchemist Thomas Vaughan, who claimed to be a former member of the Satanic “Palladist” ciult based in Charleston, South Carolina, headed by Pike and created by Mazzini. However, in 1897, Taxil finally confessed that the revelations about the Palladian Rite were a hoax, causing quite a scandal. Margiotta too confessed to La France Libre of Lyon, declaring that he never met a Diana Vaughan and that he invented all such stories after he signed a “barbarous contract” with Taxil. Afterwards, Margiotta was never seen or heard from again. Waite determined that Taxil’s claim that Vaughan had just been his sales representative was “improbable.” However, Waite was able to confirm the authenticity of an unpublished manuscript, including an interview with “Mr. William Oscar Roone,” introduced as a cashier of the National Bank of Ohio and an old friend of Albert Pike, which appears to corroborate the existence of a woman named Diana Vaughan. Massimo Introvigne has identified that Waite misspelled the name of William Oscar Roome (1841 – 1920), a cashier of the National Bank of Ohio, who would become president of the American Savings Bank of Washington, and who married Albert Pike’s daughter Lilian. According to Waite, Roone “stated that Diana Vaughan had been long known to him in a mental state which necessitated medical supervision. Her family, composed of honourable Protestants of Kentucky, was obliged to incarcerate her in an asylum, some six or seven years ago. At the end of several months, she left as she was supposed to have been cured. Her whereabouts at the present time are quite unknown to Mr. Roone, but it is probable enough that she repaired at some period to Paris, and fell into the hands of persons who have been exploiting her delusions.”[158]

[1] David Fernbach. “Introduction,” in Karl Marx, The Revolutions of 1848 (New York: Random House, 1973), p. 23.

[2] Billington. Fire in the Minds of Men, p. 137

[3] Karl Marx. “Moralizing Criticism and Critical Morality…” On the French Revolution (Paris: Social Publishing, 1985), p. 91.

[4] Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels. The Holy Family.

[5] Niall Ferguson. The House of Rothschild: Money’s Prophets 1798 – 1848. Volume I (Penguin Books, 1998).

[6] Niall Ferguson. The Ascent of Money (Penguin, 2012), p. 86.

[7] Ibid., p. 90.

[8] Ferguson. The House of Rothschild.

[9] Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 9534-9535).

[10] Gerald Posner. God’s Bankers: A History of Money and Power at the Vatican (Simon and Schuster, 2015), p. 12.

[11] Margiotta. Adriano Lemmi, p. 97; cited in Queenborough, Occult Theocracy, pp. 225.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Daniel. Scarlet and the Beast (1994).

[14] John C. Lester & Daniel Love Wilson, Ku Klux klan: its origin, growth and disbandment, p. 27, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2j4OAAAAIAAJ&q=Pike]

[15] Nicholas Hagger. The Secret History of the West (O Books, 2005), pp. 367, 373.

[16] “Giuseppe Mazzini” in Volume III K – P of 10,000 Famous Freemasons, William R. Denslow, 1957, Macoy Publishing & Masonic Supply Co., Inc.; Garibaldi—the mason Translated from Giuseppe Garibaldi Massone by the Grand Orient of Italy.

[17] Diego Gambetta. The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection (Harvard University Press, 1996), p. 149.

[18] Monsignor George F. Dillon. The War of Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civilization (Dublin: M.H. Gill & Sons, 1885), p. 113.

[19] Edith Queenborough. Occult Theocracy (Jazzybee Verlag, 2012).

[20] Catholic Jew. “Frankists and the Catholic Church.” alternativegenhist.blogspot.ca (April 15, 2014).

[21] Entry of January 23, 1904. In Marvin Lowenthal (ed. and trans.), The Diaries of Theodor Herzl (London, 1958, pp, 425–426; cited in Robert S. Wistrichin. “Theodor Herzl: Between Myth and Messianism,” in Mark H. Gelber & Vivian Liska (eds.), Theodor Herzl: From Europe to Zion (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2007), p. 19.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Marsha Keith Schuchard. “Lord Goerge Gordon and Cabbalistic Freemasonry.” In Martin Mulsow & Richard Henry Popkin. Secret conversions to Judaism in early modern Europe (Brill, 2004), p. 223.

[24] Edward Gelles. The Jewish Journey: A Passage through European History (The Radcliffe Press, 2016), p. 154.

[25] Olivier Ferret. La Fureur de Nuire: Échanges Pamphlétaires entre Philosophes et Antiphilosophes, 1750-1770 (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2007).

[26] T.T. Teeling. “Joseph de Maistre.” The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XX (1985), p. 824.

[27] Isaiah Berlin. “The Second Onslaught: Joseph de Maistre and Open Obscurantism.” Two Enemies of the Enlightenment (Wolfson College, Oxford, 1965).

[28] Jacques Godechot & Georges Lefebvre, cited in Eisenstein, op. cit., p. 47.

[29] “Philalèthes” Encyclopédie de la franc-maçonnerie, pocketbook, p.658, 659

[30] Armando Saitta (“La Mac :: La Charb :: et le M ::” i.e. “Freemasonry, Carbonari and le Monde”)]; cited in Terry Melanson, “Militant Masonry: Amis de la Vérité, Buonarroti Masters and French Carbonari” (Part 2 of 2) Conspiracy Archive (February 25, 2013).

[31] Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 2945-2946).

[32] Elizabeth L. Eisenstein. The First Professional Revolutionist: Filippo Michele Buonarroti (1761-1837) (Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 11.

[33] Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Location 2960).

[34] Cited in Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 2966-2967).

[35] Lehning, op. cit., p. 114; cited in Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 2984-2986).

[36] Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 2995-2996).

[37] Ibid. (Kindle Locations 3000-3001).

[38] Ibid. (Kindle Locations 3023-3025).

[39] Ibid. (Kindle Locations 3028-3030).

[40] Ibid. (Kindle Locations 3068-3072).

[41] Arthur Lehning. “Buonarroti: And His International Secret Societies.” International Review of Social History, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1956), p. 122.

[42] Ibid., p. 120.

[43] Eisenstein, pp. 35-6; cited in Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 3080-3083).

[44] Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 3130-3131).

[45] R. John Rath. “The Carbonari: Their Origins, Initiation Rites, and Aims.” The American Historical Review, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Jan., 1964), p. 353.

[46] Alan Reinerman. “Metternich and the Papal Condemnation of the ‘Carbonari’, 1821.” Catholic Historical Review, 54, 1 (1968), pp. 55-69.

[47] “Freemasonry, Secret Societies, and the Continuity of the Occult Tradition in English Literature.” Ph.D. diss., (Austin: University of Texas, 1975) p. 353; “Yeats and the Unknown Superiors: Swedenborg, Falk, and Cagliostro,” Hermetic Journal, 37 (1987) p. 18.

[48] Webster. Secret Societies and Subversive Movements, p. 174.

[49] Antiquities of the Illuminati. “Qadosh: The Johannite Tradition.” Retrieved from http://www. antiqillum.com/texts/bg/Qadosh/qadosh079.htm

[50] John Yarker. “The Antient and Primitive Rite of Masonry.” The Kneph, Vol. VIII, No. 1, September, 1888.

[51] Reginald Gambier Mc Bean. A Complete History of the Ancient and Primitive Rite, From the Archives of the Sovereign Sanctuary of the 95th Last Degree of the Ancient and Primitive Rite Regular Masonic Body of Freemasonry. (1925)

[52] Allan H. Greenfield. The Roots of Modern Magick: 1700 thru 2000 (Manutius Press, 2006) p. 137

[53] Jacques-Etienne Marconis de Negre. The Sanctuary of Memphis Or Hermes: The Development of Masonic Mysteries (Nocalore Press, 1933).

[54] Wit von Dörring. Fragmente aus meinem Leben, 33-34. Cited in Rath. “The Carbonari: Their Origins, Initiation Rites, and Aims,” p. 363.

[55] R. John Rath. “The Carbonari: Their Origins, Initiation Rites, and Aims.” The American Historical Review, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Jan., 1964), p. 354.

[56] Jacques Godechot & Georges Lefebvre, p. 45.

[57] Lehning, op. cit., pp. 126-7.

[58] Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 3154-3159).

[59] Ibid. (Kindle Locations 3236-3239).

[60] Arthur Lehning. ”Buonarroti: And His International Secret Societies.” International Review of Social History, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1956), p. 138.

[61] Eisenstein. The First Professional Revolutionist, p. 88.

[62] Monsignor George Dillon. Grand Orient Freemasonry Unmasked (London: Britons Publishing Company, 1950) p. 89.

[63] M. Headings. French Freemasonry Under the Third Republic (Baltimore, John Hopkins Press, 1949).

[64] Julian Strube. “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism, a genealogical approach to socialism and secularization in 19th-century France.” Religion, 2016 Vol. 46, No. 3, p. 371.

[65] Carolina Armenteros. The French Idea of History: Joseph de Maistre and his Heirs, 1794-1854 (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 2011).

[66] Graham Hancock & Robert Bauval. The Master Game: Unmasking the Secret Rulers of the World (Red Wheel Weiser, Jan. 1, 2011), p. 464.

[67] Ibid., p. 30.

[68] Julian Strube. “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism, a genealogical approach to socialism and secularization in 19th-century France.” Religion, 2016 Vol. 46, No. 3, p. 365.

[69] Saint-Amand Bazard, ed. 1831. Doctrine de Saint-Simon: Première année (Paris: Au bureau de l’Organisateur.), p. 334.

[70] Strube. “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism,” p. 368.

[71] Just Muiron. Les nouvelles transactions sociales, religieuses et scientifiques (Paris: Bossange Prère, 1832), p. 148.

[72] Lehning. “Buonarroti.”

[73] Eisenstein. The First Professional Revolutionist, p. 66.

[74] see Glenn Magee. Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition (Cornel: Cornell University Press, July 2001).

[75] Norman Cohn. “Apocalypticism Explained: Nazism and Marxism” (PBS Frontline).

[76] Norman Cohn. The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (Oxford University Press, 1970).

[77] Antelman. To Eliminate the Opiate, p. 16.

[78] Paul Johnson. A History of the Jews, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, (London, 1987). p 348.

[79] Stefan-Ludwig Hoffmann. Die Politik der Geselligkeit: Freimaurerlogen in der deutschen Bürgergesellschaft, 1840-1918 (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000), p. 182.

[80] Boris I Nicolaevsky & Otto Maenchen-Helfen. Karl Marx: man and fighter (Taylor & Francis, 1973), pp. 22–27.

[81] Boris I Nicolaevsky & Otto Maenchen-Helfen. Karl Marx: man and fighter (Taylor & Francis, 1973), pp. 22–27.

[82] Tristram Hunt. Marx’s General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels (Macmillan, 2010).

[83] Isaiah Berlin. The Life and Opinions of Moses Hess (Jewish Historical Society of England, 1959), p. 21.

[84] Rob Knowles. Political Economy from Below: Economic Thought in Communitarian Anarchism, 1840-1914 (Routledge, 2013), p. 342.

[85] George Woodcock. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: His Life and Work (Schocken Books, 1972). p. 13.

[86] Nahum Norbert Glatzer. The Judaic Tradition: Texts (Behrman House Inc., 1969) p. 526.

[87] Alexander Reid Ross. Against the Fascist Creep (AK Press, 2017)

[88] Cited in Isaiah Berlin. The Life and Opinions of Moses Hess (The Lucien Wolf memorial lecture, Dec. 1957).

[89] Edmund Silberner. “Zwei unbekannte Briefe von Moses Hess an Heinrich Heine.” International Review of Social History, 6, 3 (1961), p. 456.

[90] Ferguson. The House of Rothschild.

[91] Ferguson. The House of Rothschild.

[92] “The Knight of Noble Consciousness.” ine, Volume 12 (New York, 1854), p. 479

[93] Clark Marvin H., Jr. Karl Marx: Prophet of the Red Horseman.

[94] Thomas Frost. Secret Societies of the European Revolution (Kessinger Publishing, 2003). p. 1.

[95] Billington. Fire in the Minds of Men, p. 31.

[96] Thomas Kurian (ed). The Encyclopedia of Political Science (Washington D.C: CQ Press, 2011. p. 1555.

[97] E. J. Hobsbawm. The Age of Revolution 1789 -1948 (N.Y.: 1964), p. 157-160.

[98] Gallante Garone. Buonarroti e i rivoluzionari (1951), p. 400-09.

[99] Ferguson. The House of Rothschild.

[100] Karl Marx. “Speech at anniversary of the People’s Paper” (1856).

[101] Ibid.

[102] Elizabeth L. Eisenstein. The First Professional Revolutionist: Filippo Michele Buonarroti (1761-1837) (Harvard University Press, 1959), pp. 43-4; Melanson. Perfectibilists (Kindle Locations 2874-2877).

[103] Ibid.

[104] Julian Strube. “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism, a genealogical approach to socialism and secularization in 19th-century France.” Religion, 2016 Vol. 46, No. 3, p. 370.

[105] Boris I. Nicolaevsky. “Secret Societies and the First International.” The Revolutionary Internationals, 1864-1943; ed. Milorad M. Drachovitch, (Stanford University Press, 1966).

[106] Ibid.

[107] Ibid.

[108] Ibid.

[109] Jean Bossu. “Une loge de proscrits 'a Londres sous le Second Empire et aprés la Commune" L'dée libre (January-October, 1958); cited in Nicolaevsky. “Secret Societies and the First International.”

[110] Nicolaevsky. “Secret Societies and the First International.”

[111] Nesta H. Webster. World Revolution Or the Plot Against Civilization (Kessinger Publishing) p. 187

[112] Michael Bakunin. God and the State, (1882).

[113] Ibid.

[114] Bakunin. Revolutionary Catechism (1866).

[115] The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. “Nihilism.”

[116] Denis William Brogan. Proudhon (London: H. Hamilton, 1934), chapter iv.

[117] Benjamin Peixotto. “Principality, now Kingdom, of Roumania.” Menorah Vol. I. JULY, 1886 No. 1. p. 345.

[118] Webster. Secret Societies and Subversive Movements, p. 410.

[119] Leon Zeldis. “Some Sephardic Jews in Freemasonry.” Masonic Papers. Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry. Retrieved from http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/zeldis14.html

[120]  “Jews in English Freemasonry.” Jewish Communities and Records. 20 April 2015. Retrieved from https://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/Newman_papers/Jews_in_English_Freemasonry.htm

[121] B.A. Elzas. The Jews of South Carolina (1905), index; C. Reznikoff and U.Z. Engelman. The Jews of Charleston (1950), passim; J.R. Marcus. Early American Jewry (1953), index; J.R. Rosenbloom. A Biographical Dictionary of Early American Jews (1960), pp. 28–29.

[122] Cited in Robert Dreyfuss. Hostage to Khomeini, (New Benjamin Franklin House, June 1981), p. 118.

[123] Lady Queenborough (Edith Starr Miller). Occult Theocrasy (Abbeville, France: F. Paillart, 1933) p. 417.

[124] Ibid.

[125] Isaac Baer Levinsohn. Éfés dammîm: a series of conversations at Jerusalem between a patriarch of the Greek Church and a chief rabbi of the Jews, concerning the malicious charge against the Jews of using Christian blood (Longman, 1841). p. 14.

[126] Hess. Rome and Jerusalem, p. 35.

[127] Ibid.

[128] Dillon. Grand Orient Freemasonry Unmasked, p. 89

[129] Margiotta. Adriano Lemmi, p. 97; cited in Queenborough, Occult Theocracy, pp. 225.

[130] Fred Hobson. Mencken: A Life (Random 2012).

[131] “Publication of Geneology Shows Bismarck Descendant of Jews.” Jewish Telegraphic Agency (September 16, 1930).

[132] Hugh Chisholm, (ed.) “Friedrich Wilhelm II. of Prussia.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). (Cambridge University Press, 1911), pp. 64–65.

[133] Hajo Holborn. A History of Modern Germany 1840-1945 (Princeton University Press 1982), p. 110.

[134] F.B.M. Hollyday. Bismarck. Great Lives Observed (Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 16–18.

[135] Fritz Stern. Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire, p. 17.

[136] James Joll. “The Jewish banker and the German statesman: the history of a 19th‐century partnership.” New York Times (February 27, 1977).

[137] Ibid.

[138] David B. Green. “This Day in Jewish History / The Man Who Would Bankroll Prussia’s Wars Is Born.” Haaretz (December 21, 2014).

[139] Agetha Ramm. Germany, 1789–1919: a political history (London: Methuen, 1967), pp. 308–313.

[140] Stern. Gold and Iron, p. 132.

[141]  George William Speth. Royal Freemasons (Masonic Publishing Company, 1885), p. 28.

[142] Queenborough. Occult Theocracy.

[143] A.E. Waite. Devil Worship in France (1896), p. 28.

[144] Ibid., p. 24.

[145] A. Ralph Epperson. The Unseen Hand: An Introduction to the Conspiratorial View of History (Publius, 1985), p. 223.

[146] Nick F. Lucas. Compare (Georgetown, South Carolina: Lighthouse Bookstore, 1980), p. 24; as cited in Epperson. The Unseen Hand, p. 223.

[147] “About Scottish Rite.” Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite Valley of Calgary. Retrieved from http://www.aasrcalgary.ca/about/about-scottish-rite

[148] René Guénon. Theosophy: History of a Pseudo-religion (Hillsdale, NY: Sophia Perennis, 2003), p. 20.

[149] Massimo Introvigne. Satanism: A Social History (Leiden: Brill, 2016), p. 180.

[150] Ibid, p. 186.

[151] Ibid, p. 186–187.

[152] Waite. Devil Worship in France, p. 202.

[153] Ibid., p. 213.

[154] Waite. Devil Worship in France, p. 24.

[155] Margiotta. Adriano Lemmi, p. 97; cited in Queenborough, Occult Theocracy, pp. 217-218.

[156] Blood on the Altar (Coeur d’Alene: Independent History and Research, 2007), p. 69.

[157] Ibid.

[158] Massimo Introvigne. Satanism: A Social History (Leiden: Brill, 2016), p. 217.

Volume Two

1. The Elizabethan Age

2. The Great Conjunction

3. The Alchemical Wedding

4. The Rosicrucian Furore

5. The Invisible College

6. 1666

7. The Royal Society

8. America

9. Redemption Through Sin

10. Oriental Kabbalah

11. The Grand Lodge

12. The Illuminati

13. The Asiatic Brethren

14. The American Revolution

15. Haskalah

16. The Aryan Myth

17. The Carbonari

18. The American Civil War

19. God is Dead

20. Theosophy

21. Shambhala